LitWiki - User contributions [en]

Convention

2005-04-26T02:41:23Z

Shawk:

A pattern that occurs so often that it is not noticed, like a sonnet or motif. When a character speaks aloud what he is thinking is also considered a convention. (Literature for Composition, 1074).

Virgil

2005-04-23T02:50:34Z

Shawk:

Virgil’s given name was Publius Vergilius Maro (70 - 19 B.C.). He grew up on the farm of his well-to-do-father, near Mantua, Italy. Virgil farmed for the majority of his twenties and continued writing when time allowed. ''The Eclogues'' are ten poems, written by Virgil, around 40 B.C. “The ''First Eclogue'' reflects Virgil’s gratitude.” (Masterworks of World Literature, 389) This work dealt with rural life in a romantic and idealized way. The theme and mood of this poem brought Virgil success. The people felt they were over urbanized and wanted to go back to country living. The ''Fourth Eclogue'' predicted the birth of Christ. The ''Georgics'' was written when Virgil was forty and was essentially a teaching manual on Italian farming. “It was above all, consciously, propaganda for the back-to-the-soil, faithful-work-and-simple-living ideal that Virgil, along with the government of his time, believed it mandatory to assert if the Roman hegemony, or any hegemony, were to survive.” (390) The last poem Virgil would ever write was ''The Aeneid''. Augustus tasked Virgil with writing this poem as propaganda to let the world know that Rome’s destiny was to rule the world. Virgil spent his last years making the final revisions on his poem. He and Augustus traveled to Greece to visit some of the scenes of the poem. On their journey back, Virgil became sick, and died shortly after landing in Italy. Virgil was very critical of his work, and on his deathbed he ordered the manuscript destroyed, because it was not yet to his very high standards. We are only able to enjoy ''The Aeneid'' today because Augustus countermanded the order.

Works Cited:

''Masterworks of World Literature''. Vol 1. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1955.

Virgil

2005-04-23T02:41:31Z

Shawk:

Virgil’s given name was Publius Vergilius Maro. He grew up on the farm of his well-to-do-father, near Mantua, Italy. Virgil farmed for the majority of his twenties and continued writing when time allowed. ''The Eclogues'' are ten poems, written by Virgil, around 40 B.C. “The ''First Eclogue'' reflects Virgil’s gratitude.” (Masterworks of World Literature, 389) This work dealt with rural life in a romantic and idealized way. The theme and mood of this poem brought Virgil success. The people felt they were over urbanized and wanted to go back to country living. The ''Fourth Eclogue'' predicted the birth of Christ. The ''Georgics'' was written when Virgil was forty and was essentially a teaching manual on Italian farming. “It was above all, consciously, propaganda for the back-to-the-soil, faithful-work-and-simple-living ideal that Virgil, along with the government of his time, believed it mandatory to assert if the Roman hegemony, or any hegemony, were to survive.” (390) The last poem Virgil would ever write was ''The Aeneid''. Augustus tasked Virgil with writing this poem as propaganda to let the world know that Rome’s destiny was to rule the world. Virgil spent his last years making the final revisions on his poem. He and Augustus traveled to Greece to visit some of the scenes of the poem. On their journey back, Virgil became sick, and died shortly after landing in Italy. Virgil was very critical of his work, and on his deathbed he ordered the manuscript destroyed, because it was not yet to his very high standards. We are only able to enjoy ''The Aeneid'' today because Augustus countermanded the order.

Works Cited:

''Masterworks of World Literature''. Vol 1. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1955.

Ovid

2005-04-23T00:25:50Z

Shawk:

Ovid was a poet during Rome's Golden Age. His given name is Publius Ovidius Naso and he was born on March 20, 43 BC. His father wanted him to persue a political carrer, but he was much too ambitious and talented for that. He was reading his poetry to audiences by the time he was twenty and by the age of thirty, he was Rome's most famous poet. He remained successful for two decades when his carrer abruply came to an end. Augustus exiled Ovid when he was fifty. The reason for the exile is unclear, but some have presumed that it had to do with a mistake Ovid made with regard to one of his poems. He was exiled to Tomis, which is in modern Costanza, in Romania. His remaining years were spent writing poetry about exile and he died an unhappy man of sixty. Ovid's works before his exile reflects his thoughts, theories, and beliefs about love.

Convention

2005-04-23T00:06:21Z

Shawk:

"A pattern (for instance, the 14-line poem, or sonnet) or motif (for instance, the bumbling police officer in detective fiction) or other device occurring so often that it is taken for granted. Thus it is a convention that actors in a performance of ''Julius Caesar'' are understood to be speaking Latin, though in fact they are speaking Engish. Similarly, the soliloquy (a character alone on the stage speaks his or her thoughts aloud) is a convention, for in real life sane people do not talk aloud to themselves." (Literature for Composition, 1074).

Literary Terms

2005-04-22T23:59:39Z

Shawk: /* Credits */

Every discipline has its own technical vocabulary; the study of literature is no different. In order to discuss fiction in an intelligent and competent manner, a familiarity (or literacy) with this vocabulary is crucial. Define each of the following words calling from various sources — reference books, lectures, your own reading — making clear your own understanding of the vocabulary. Feel free to define or add your own terms.

== Allegory to Atmosphere ==

* [[allegory]]
* [[alliteration]]
* [[allusion]]
* [[anagnorisis]]
* [[antagonist]]
* [[anti-hero]]
* [[archetype]]
* [[atmosphere]]

== Canon to Convention ==

* [[canon]]
* [[catharsis]]
* [[character]]
* [[climax]]
* [[colloquialism]]
* [[comedy]]
* [[conflict]]
* [[convention]]

== Deconstruction to Diatribe ==

* [[deconstruction]]
* [[dénouement]]
* [[description]]
* [[deus ex machina]]
* [[diatribe]]

== Epic Poetry to Exposition ==

* [[Epic Poetry | epic poetry]]
* [[epigraph]]
* [[epiphany]]
* [[ethos]]
* [[exegesis]]
* [[exposition]]

== Flashback to Freytag’s Formula ==

* [[flashback]]
* [[foil]]
* [[foreshadowing]]
* [[Freytag’s Formula]]

== Genre to Irony ==

* [[genre]]
* [[hamartia]]
* [[hero]]
* [[heroic ideal]]
* [[hubris]]
* [[hypertext]]
* [[imagery]]
* [[inciting action]]
* [[in medias res]]
* [[irony]]

== Melodrama to Myth ==

* [[melodrama]]
* [[metaphor]]
* [[metonymy]]
* [[milieu]]
* [[mimesis]]
* [[monologue]]
* [[motif]]
* [[mood]]
* [[myth]]

== Narration to Oration ==

* [[narration]]
* [[narrative]]
* [[narrator]]
* [[novel]]
* [[novella]]
* [[onomatopoeia]]
* [[oration]]

== Pace to Protagonist ==

* [[pace]]
* [[paradox]]
* [[parody]]
* [[pathos]]
* [[peripeteia]]
* [[personification]]
* [[plot]]
* [[poiesis]]
* [[point of view]]
* [[praxis]]
* [[prose]]
* [[protagonist]]

== Reader Response to Rising Action ==

* [[Reader Response Criticism]]
* [[resolution]]
* [[reversal]]
* [[rhetoric]]
* [[rhyme]]
* [[rising action]]

== Satire to Syntax ==

* [[satire]]
* [[science fiction]]
* [[semantics]]
* [[setting]]
* [[short story]]
* [[simile]]
* [[stream of consciousness]]
* [[style]]
* [[subplot]]
* [[surrealism]]
* [[symbol]]
* [[syntax]]

==Text to Zeugma ==

* [[text]]
* [[theme]]
* [[theoria]]
* [[tone]]
* [[tragedy]]
* [[trope]]
* [[verisimilitude]]
* [[zeugma]]

== External Links ==

* [http://web.cocc.edu/lisal/literaryterms/elements_of_literature.htm Elements of Literature] — Lisa R. Lazarescu begins by defining literature, then discusses various key aspects of the study.
* [http://highered.mcgraw-hill.com/sites/0072405228/student_view0/drama_glossary.html Glossary of Literary Terms] — Cursory definitions to get you on the right track from McGraw Hill’s Online Learning Center.
* [http://www.bedfordstmartins.com/literature/bedlit/glossary_a.htm Glossary of Literary Terms] — from Bedford / St. Martin’s press.
* [http://www.uky.edu/ArtsSciences/Classics/rhetoric.html A Glossary of Rhetorical Terms with Examples] — by Ross Scaife at the University of Kentucky.
* [http://www.northern.edu/benkertl/dictionary.html Literary Dictionary] — covering poetry, drama, short fiction, the novel, and literary criticism, by the students of Lysbeth Em Benkert-Rasmussen.
* [http://www.tnellen.com/cybereng/lit_terms/terms/1terms.html Literary Terms] — A comprehensive list by the students of Ted Nellen.
* [http://academic.brooklyn.cuny.edu/english/melani/lit_term.html Literary Terms] — Lilia Melani covers many of the basics in detail.
* [http://www.virtualsalt.com/rhetoric.htm Virtual Salt] — A handbook of rhetorical devices by Robert A. Harris.
* [http://www.arts.ouc.bc.ca/fiar/glossary/gloshome.html Words of Art] — A list of terms for the study of art by Robert J. Belton at Okanagan University College.

== Credits ==

* See the LitWiki [[LitWiki:Community_Portal | Community Portal]]
[[Category:Literature]][[Category:Literary Terms]]

Barnet, Sylvan. (et al.) ''Literature for Composition''. New York, HarperCollins Publishers Inc., 1992.

Literary Terms

2005-04-22T23:57:17Z

Shawk: /* Credits */

Every discipline has its own technical vocabulary; the study of literature is no different. In order to discuss fiction in an intelligent and competent manner, a familiarity (or literacy) with this vocabulary is crucial. Define each of the following words calling from various sources — reference books, lectures, your own reading — making clear your own understanding of the vocabulary. Feel free to define or add your own terms.

== Allegory to Atmosphere ==

* [[allegory]]
* [[alliteration]]
* [[allusion]]
* [[anagnorisis]]
* [[antagonist]]
* [[anti-hero]]
* [[archetype]]
* [[atmosphere]]

== Canon to Convention ==

* [[canon]]
* [[catharsis]]
* [[character]]
* [[climax]]
* [[colloquialism]]
* [[comedy]]
* [[conflict]]
* [[convention]]

== Deconstruction to Diatribe ==

* [[deconstruction]]
* [[dénouement]]
* [[description]]
* [[deus ex machina]]
* [[diatribe]]

== Epic Poetry to Exposition ==

* [[Epic Poetry | epic poetry]]
* [[epigraph]]
* [[epiphany]]
* [[ethos]]
* [[exegesis]]
* [[exposition]]

== Flashback to Freytag’s Formula ==

* [[flashback]]
* [[foil]]
* [[foreshadowing]]
* [[Freytag’s Formula]]

== Genre to Irony ==

* [[genre]]
* [[hamartia]]
* [[hero]]
* [[heroic ideal]]
* [[hubris]]
* [[hypertext]]
* [[imagery]]
* [[inciting action]]
* [[in medias res]]
* [[irony]]

== Melodrama to Myth ==

* [[melodrama]]
* [[metaphor]]
* [[metonymy]]
* [[milieu]]
* [[mimesis]]
* [[monologue]]
* [[motif]]
* [[mood]]
* [[myth]]

== Narration to Oration ==

* [[narration]]
* [[narrative]]
* [[narrator]]
* [[novel]]
* [[novella]]
* [[onomatopoeia]]
* [[oration]]

== Pace to Protagonist ==

* [[pace]]
* [[paradox]]
* [[parody]]
* [[pathos]]
* [[peripeteia]]
* [[personification]]
* [[plot]]
* [[poiesis]]
* [[point of view]]
* [[praxis]]
* [[prose]]
* [[protagonist]]

== Reader Response to Rising Action ==

* [[Reader Response Criticism]]
* [[resolution]]
* [[reversal]]
* [[rhetoric]]
* [[rhyme]]
* [[rising action]]

== Satire to Syntax ==

* [[satire]]
* [[science fiction]]
* [[semantics]]
* [[setting]]
* [[short story]]
* [[simile]]
* [[stream of consciousness]]
* [[style]]
* [[subplot]]
* [[surrealism]]
* [[symbol]]
* [[syntax]]

==Text to Zeugma ==

* [[text]]
* [[theme]]
* [[theoria]]
* [[tone]]
* [[tragedy]]
* [[trope]]
* [[verisimilitude]]
* [[zeugma]]

== External Links ==

* [http://web.cocc.edu/lisal/literaryterms/elements_of_literature.htm Elements of Literature] — Lisa R. Lazarescu begins by defining literature, then discusses various key aspects of the study.
* [http://highered.mcgraw-hill.com/sites/0072405228/student_view0/drama_glossary.html Glossary of Literary Terms] — Cursory definitions to get you on the right track from McGraw Hill’s Online Learning Center.
* [http://www.bedfordstmartins.com/literature/bedlit/glossary_a.htm Glossary of Literary Terms] — from Bedford / St. Martin’s press.
* [http://www.uky.edu/ArtsSciences/Classics/rhetoric.html A Glossary of Rhetorical Terms with Examples] — by Ross Scaife at the University of Kentucky.
* [http://www.northern.edu/benkertl/dictionary.html Literary Dictionary] — covering poetry, drama, short fiction, the novel, and literary criticism, by the students of Lysbeth Em Benkert-Rasmussen.
* [http://www.tnellen.com/cybereng/lit_terms/terms/1terms.html Literary Terms] — A comprehensive list by the students of Ted Nellen.
* [http://academic.brooklyn.cuny.edu/english/melani/lit_term.html Literary Terms] — Lilia Melani covers many of the basics in detail.
* [http://www.virtualsalt.com/rhetoric.htm Virtual Salt] — A handbook of rhetorical devices by Robert A. Harris.
* [http://www.arts.ouc.bc.ca/fiar/glossary/gloshome.html Words of Art] — A list of terms for the study of art by Robert J. Belton at Okanagan University College.

== Credits ==

* See the LitWiki [[LitWiki:Community_Portal | Community Portal]]
[[Category:Literature]][[Category:Literary Terms]]

Sylvan Barnet. William Burto. Morton Berman. Marcia Stubbs. ''Literature for Composition''. New York, HarperCollins Publishers Inc., 1992.

Literary Terms

2005-04-22T23:50:06Z

Shawk: /* Credits */

Every discipline has its own technical vocabulary; the study of literature is no different. In order to discuss fiction in an intelligent and competent manner, a familiarity (or literacy) with this vocabulary is crucial. Define each of the following words calling from various sources — reference books, lectures, your own reading — making clear your own understanding of the vocabulary. Feel free to define or add your own terms.

== Allegory to Atmosphere ==

* [[allegory]]
* [[alliteration]]
* [[allusion]]
* [[anagnorisis]]
* [[antagonist]]
* [[anti-hero]]
* [[archetype]]
* [[atmosphere]]

== Canon to Convention ==

* [[canon]]
* [[catharsis]]
* [[character]]
* [[climax]]
* [[colloquialism]]
* [[comedy]]
* [[conflict]]
* [[convention]]

== Deconstruction to Diatribe ==

* [[deconstruction]]
* [[dénouement]]
* [[description]]
* [[deus ex machina]]
* [[diatribe]]

== Epic Poetry to Exposition ==

* [[Epic Poetry | epic poetry]]
* [[epigraph]]
* [[epiphany]]
* [[ethos]]
* [[exegesis]]
* [[exposition]]

== Flashback to Freytag’s Formula ==

* [[flashback]]
* [[foil]]
* [[foreshadowing]]
* [[Freytag’s Formula]]

== Genre to Irony ==

* [[genre]]
* [[hamartia]]
* [[hero]]
* [[heroic ideal]]
* [[hubris]]
* [[hypertext]]
* [[imagery]]
* [[inciting action]]
* [[in medias res]]
* [[irony]]

== Melodrama to Myth ==

* [[melodrama]]
* [[metaphor]]
* [[metonymy]]
* [[milieu]]
* [[mimesis]]
* [[monologue]]
* [[motif]]
* [[mood]]
* [[myth]]

== Narration to Oration ==

* [[narration]]
* [[narrative]]
* [[narrator]]
* [[novel]]
* [[novella]]
* [[onomatopoeia]]
* [[oration]]

== Pace to Protagonist ==

* [[pace]]
* [[paradox]]
* [[parody]]
* [[pathos]]
* [[peripeteia]]
* [[personification]]
* [[plot]]
* [[poiesis]]
* [[point of view]]
* [[praxis]]
* [[prose]]
* [[protagonist]]

== Reader Response to Rising Action ==

* [[Reader Response Criticism]]
* [[resolution]]
* [[reversal]]
* [[rhetoric]]
* [[rhyme]]
* [[rising action]]

== Satire to Syntax ==

* [[satire]]
* [[science fiction]]
* [[semantics]]
* [[setting]]
* [[short story]]
* [[simile]]
* [[stream of consciousness]]
* [[style]]
* [[subplot]]
* [[surrealism]]
* [[symbol]]
* [[syntax]]

==Text to Zeugma ==

* [[text]]
* [[theme]]
* [[theoria]]
* [[tone]]
* [[tragedy]]
* [[trope]]
* [[verisimilitude]]
* [[zeugma]]

== External Links ==

* [http://web.cocc.edu/lisal/literaryterms/elements_of_literature.htm Elements of Literature] — Lisa R. Lazarescu begins by defining literature, then discusses various key aspects of the study.
* [http://highered.mcgraw-hill.com/sites/0072405228/student_view0/drama_glossary.html Glossary of Literary Terms] — Cursory definitions to get you on the right track from McGraw Hill’s Online Learning Center.
* [http://www.bedfordstmartins.com/literature/bedlit/glossary_a.htm Glossary of Literary Terms] — from Bedford / St. Martin’s press.
* [http://www.uky.edu/ArtsSciences/Classics/rhetoric.html A Glossary of Rhetorical Terms with Examples] — by Ross Scaife at the University of Kentucky.
* [http://www.northern.edu/benkertl/dictionary.html Literary Dictionary] — covering poetry, drama, short fiction, the novel, and literary criticism, by the students of Lysbeth Em Benkert-Rasmussen.
* [http://www.tnellen.com/cybereng/lit_terms/terms/1terms.html Literary Terms] — A comprehensive list by the students of Ted Nellen.
* [http://academic.brooklyn.cuny.edu/english/melani/lit_term.html Literary Terms] — Lilia Melani covers many of the basics in detail.
* [http://www.virtualsalt.com/rhetoric.htm Virtual Salt] — A handbook of rhetorical devices by Robert A. Harris.
* [http://www.arts.ouc.bc.ca/fiar/glossary/gloshome.html Words of Art] — A list of terms for the study of art by Robert J. Belton at Okanagan University College.

== Credits ==

* See the LitWiki [[LitWiki:Community_Portal | Community Portal]]
[[Category:Literature]][[Category:Literary Terms]]

''Italic text''Literature for Composition''Italic text'' Essays, Fiction, Poetry, and Drama, 3rd edition, Sylvan Barnet, Morton Berman, William Burto, Marcia Stubbs

Atmosphere

2005-04-22T23:44:19Z

Shawk:

The emotional tone (for instance, joy, or horror) in a work, is most often established by the setting. The setting in a work usually provides the atmosphere. The atmosphere is "an air that the characters breathe, a world in which they move." The setting can be physical surroundings such as furniture, landscape, and climate. All of these props establish the atmosphere.
(Literature for Composition, 114-115)

Alliteration

2005-04-22T23:18:55Z

Shawk:

repetition of consonant sounds, especially at the beginning of words. "Alliteration is sometimes defined as the repetition of initial sounds." ("All the awful auguries," or "Bring me my bow of burning gold"). (Literature for Composition, 228)

Alliteration

2005-04-22T23:17:37Z

Shawk:

Circe

2005-03-29T14:54:54Z

Shawk:

Circe is known in Greek mythology as the daughter of Helios, The Sun, and Perseis. Her siblings included King Perses of Tauris, King Aeetes of Colchis, and Queen Pasiphae of Minos. As a child of Perseis and Helios her nature was purely divine. She was immortal, a demi-god, free to work her magic’s without any threat of death hanging over her head. It is evident, she was a goddess to be feared. (http://www.hhhh.org/maia/Circe.html)

She was a sorceress who used her magic wand to transform people into animals. (Mangum) She would act on impulse and bring misery to anyone who crossed her. Circe used her magic in revengeful ways, and had the tendency to become violent when faced with unreciprocated love. She had fallen in love with Picus and turned him into a woodpecker once he denied her affections. Later, she desired Glaucus, who approached her and asked for her to help Scylla fall in love with him. This time she did not turn her anger against the man she loved; instead, she used her dark powers to transform Scylla into an unsightly monster that would haunt the Straits of Messina. (http://www.hhhh.org/maia/Circe.html)

Beasts whom were once men roamed on the island of Aeaea where she resided. She seemed to have an inexplicable desire to perform her magic on sailors who visited the island. It is clear, her powers were extensive and she had connections with the Underworld. She could foretell the future, transform men into beasts and women into horrifying monsters, and she had enough understanding of the activities of Hades that she could advise Odysseus on how to make it there and return safe and sound. (http://www.hhhh.org/maia/Circe.html)

Odysseus is the only man to have outdone her by resisting her magic with the help of the gods. Circe may have realized she had met a man who could match her abilities, with the gods on his side, and viewed Odysseus as an equal. She set his men free and provided Odysseus hospitality because she wanted the two of them to get together. To her, the possibilities were endless with her magic and his cleverness; they would make a fearsome team against any foe. (http://www.hhhh.org/maia/Circe.html)

Circe had a son by Odysseus, Telegonus. When Telegonus grew to manhood, he went in search of his father and accidentally killed Odysseus with a poison-tipped spear. When Telegonus realized his mistake, he became remorseful and brought the body of Odysseus, Penelope, and Telemachus to Circe. Circe used her powers to make Penelope and Telemachus immortal. Penelope and Telegonus later married, and Circe sent them to live on the Isle of the Blest, while Circe married Telemachus. (http://www.owlsdottir.com/goddess/water/circe.html)

Circe also had the powers of spiritual purification and had a daughter, Aega, a nymph, known as the goddess of the sun. (Mangum)

Works Cited:

“Circe.” 21 Mar 2005 http://www.owlsdottir.com/goddess/water/circe.html

“Circe: The Black Sorceress.” 20 Mar 2005 http://www.hhhh.org/maia/Circe.html

Mangum, Mark. “Circe.” 20 Mar 2005 http://www.pantheon.org/articles/c/circe.html

Athena

2005-02-22T02:52:04Z

Shawk:

Athena is the Greek goddess of wisdom, war, the arts, industry, justice and skill. She was Zeus’s favorite child. Her mother was Metis, the goddess of wisdom. Athena was born out of Zeus’s forehead fully grown. She is known for her wisdom, reason, and purity. She was the virgin goddess who never married or had any children. (Tuccinardi) “She is above all, the Goddess of the City, the protectress of civilized life.” (''The Encyclopedia of the Goddess Athena'')
The Parthenon in Athens, Greece is known as Athena’s sacred temple on the acropolis. It is known as the temple of virgins and is considered by some to be the most perfect building ever built. (Lalonde)

Athena and her uncle, Poseidon, both wanted a certain city in Greece, so they decided that whoever gave the best gift would receive the city. Poseidon made a well for the people, but its water was salty and they did not have much use for it. Athena gave the people an olive tree. From this tree, the people received food, oil, and wood. She won the city and named it Athens. Another version states that Poseidon gave the people and wonderful horse, but it was not tamed. Athena invented the horse-bit which allowed men to use the horse for the first time. (''The Encyclopedia of the Goddess Athena'')

Although Athena is known as the Goddess of War, she always tried to prevent it and keep peace. Once a war was started, however, she fought to the end, never loosing a battle. She often gave advice and guidance to help many heroes’ win their battles. She would disguise herself as men, women, and children to help trick the enemy. She was known for her wisdom. It was Athena who came up with the idea of the Trojan Horse.

Athena was also known for her compassion. Teiresias accidentally walked in on Athena bathing, which was punishable by death. She had compassion on him, so she blinded him, but gave him the gift of inner sight, the gift of prophesies. Teiresias was revered by ancient Greeks for all times. “More than any other of the Greek Goddesses, Athena remains a symbol of civilization, useful knowledge, noble reasoning, logic and wisdom. The Goddess Athena reminds us that we can successfully use our intellect and creativity in the pursuit of any goal we choose.” (http://www.goddessgift.com/goddess-myths/greek_goddess_athena.htm)

Work Cited:

Lalonde, Stephen D. “Athena the Greek Goddess of Wisdom” 21 Feb 2005 http://vathena.arc.nasa.gov/project/teacher/goddess/

Tuccinardi, Ryan. “Athena” 21 Feb 2005 http://www.pantheon.org/articles

''The Encyclopedia of the Goddess Athena''. “The Goddess Athena” 21 Feb 2005 http://www.goddess-athena.org/Encyclopedia/Athena/

“Athena, Greek Goddess of Wisdom and Craftsmanship.” 21 Feb 2005 http://www.goddessgift.com/goddess-myths/greek_goddess_athena.htm

Epic of Gilgamesh

2005-02-20T23:52:51Z

Shawk: /* Archetypes in Gilgamesh */

[[Image:Gilgamesh.jpg|thumb|Gilgamesh]] While composed nearly five thousand years ago (2500-1500 BCE), ''Gilgamesh'' seems very as contemporary in its thematic concerns as it is alien in many of its cultural practices. Many of these themes emerge from a lost mythological tradition and a culture that is equally non-extant, the bonds of friendship, fear of death, and the quest for worldly renown still strike chords with us even in the twenty-first century.

== Historical Context ==

''Gilgamesh'' is a primary epic, composed over a thousand years by cultural stories of the legendary king, Gilgamesh, who is thought to have historically ruled Uruk circa 2700 BCE. The oral stories were probably assembled by a poet and cast into the narrative form of the epic between 2000 and 1600 BCE and finally written on clay tablets in cuneiform during the reign of Assurbanipol in 668-627 BCE.

== Gilgamesh as Epic ==

Can ''Gilgamesh'' be called an Epic? Yes and No.
No, because the term epic is usually applied to exceptionally long poems that are narrated by someone else. ''Gilgamesh'' has three entries that one may consider to be poems. On page 34 ''Gilgamesh'' cries out to the counsellors of Uruk in what I would call a short prayer. On page 43 Ea speaks to Enlil about his misdeeds, the words that are indented have the characteristics of an epic poem. Ea words center on Enlil whose deeds can control the fate of human mankind.

Then again yes, ''Gilgamesh'' could be called a Primary Epic. The story of Gilgamesh has several episodes that are legendary. The first sentence of the story states, "''Gilgamesh'' is a poem of unparalleled antiquity, the first great heroic narrative of world literature."(The Norton Anthology) On Lit muse you will find that Primary Epic means, "The work focuses on the personal concept of heroism, and the self-fulfillment and identity of the individual hero." Gilgamesh was definitely out for self-fulfillment.

== The Role of Enkidu ==
In my eyes Enkidu is the real hero of the epic.On most of the sites I visited for research, I've found that majority of the people tend to downplay Enkidus role.Some call him a wild man made noble by the "great" Gilgamesh and others say he forced Gilgamesh into his adventures or misadventures. Even the gods looked at him as a sidekick and never equal to Gilgamesh, when deciding that he must die for the killing of the Bull of Heaven, and not Gilgamesh.
The reason the Bull was killed was because Gilgamesh was mouthing off to Ishtar and like a true solider Enkidu had to step in a save Gilgamesh. On all the adventures and in all the battles Enkidu was all was the stronger warrior, but Gilgamesh would always receive the praise.Enkidu was brought in as a counterweight to Gilgamesh and ended up being his saviour.Enkidu saves the life of Gilgamesh many times and ends up giving his life for him.

When the god Anu heard the city of Uruk lamenting the cruelty of their king, he responded by demanding of the goddess of creation: “You made him, O Aruru, now create his equal; let it be as like him as his own reflection, his second self, stormy heart for stormy heart” (19). Thus Enkindu was created to counterbalance the despotic Gilgamesh: whereas Gilgamesh was two thirds god and one third man, Enkindu was two thirds beast and one third man. Enkindu also acts as a reflection to Gilgamesh in that both must learn what it means to be human. In order to do this, each must distance himself from his animal or godly instincts. As for Enkindu, Jager states that “the wild man who is about to enter the human city must…forego living in a state of absolute unity with a savage and untamed nature.” Enkindu must break the bond between himself and the wilderness in order to be cultured and civilized. Similarly, Jager notes that “The king seeking to humanly inhabit his realm must forego treating that realm as a mere physical extension of himself to which he has completely unrestricted access.” Gilgamesh, like a weaning child, must recognize the break between himself as a ruler and the kingdom he reigns over. Both must learn how to properly inhabit the human realm before they can be considered human.

== Thematic Concerns ==

The [[Epic Poetry | epic]] takes as its primary concern Gilgamesh’s wisdom that he acquires during his journeys and the monuments that he constructs upon his return. Like the Homeric epics, Gilgamesh begins ''in medias res'' during the rule of a wild king, two-thirds god and one-third man. While Gilgamesh is strong and an obvious stud — at least in his own mind, his is cruel and naive, needing to discover what it means to be human if he is to become a good ruler and father.

=== Bonds of Friendship ===

His first lesson is one of friendship through the wild man Enkidu, more of an animal than man. Like all good, lasting friendships, Gilgamesh and Enkidu first attempt to kill each other when the latter comes to Uruk. Fortunately, they do not, yet Gilgamesh does get the slight upper-hand, and they become great friends. Indeed, while there is an implicit suggestion of Gilgamesh’s superiority over Enkidu, something akin most friendships, there is one who is dominant, choosing adventures, making decisions, and directing the ultimate course of the friendship. Gilgamesh, since he is the [[heroic ideal | epic hero]], seems to take this role, perhaps also suggesting the superiority of the cultured and civilized to the animal, or natural. This motif becomes even more apparent in their first adventure.

Strong bonds are usually formed when two people have a common goal, ideal, or interest. The gods created Enkidu to try to soften Gilgamesh—make him kinder and gentler, if you will. Even now, people come in and out of life for a purpose—some to be there for a long time and some for just a moment. Their time in one's life may or may not accomplish its purpose because some are sometimes blinded by their own desires. For Enkidu, his time with Gilgamesh was relatively short, but it was a relationship that Gilgamesh would never forget. Even though their first meeting was distressing, they became best friends. Early in his existence, Enkidu had lost his physical strength (due to his encounter with the harlot), but had gained knowledge and insight (1). When Endiku first came into the city, Gilgamesh was about to go in a ravish a new bride. Enkidu knew this was wrong and tried to block him at the door. They had a tremendous fight, but that fight was the beginning of their friendship. Many friendships that start off on the wrong foot, wind up being the closest. Their friendship seems genuine, but only Gilgamesh seemed to gain anything from it. This also occurs in our friendships. One person seems to get all the glory and the other may be just along for the ride or be the one who gets things done behind the scenes—not everyone wants to be king!

Cited Works
(1) http://www.wsu.edu/~dee/MESO/GILG.HTM page 2, Tablet 1

=== Quest for Worldly Renown ===

Now that we are friends, we have to party. Enkidu soon gets bored in Uruk — “I am oppressed by idleness” (23) — and Gilgamesh suggests they go get medieval of some evil: Humbaba. This feat will also prove Gilgamesh a real hero by allowing stories to be told about his great feats of manhood:

: I will set up my name in the place where the names of famous men are written, and where no man’s name is written yet I will raise a monument to the gods.

[[Image:Grendel.jpg|thumb|Humbaba]] While Humbaba lives in the Country of the Living, seemingly quite far from Uruk, and is apparently not an immediate threat to Gilgamesh’s people, this endeavor might seem a bit dubious. Perhaps this is a commentary on what men will do when they are bored: let’s go kill something. When we are at peace, we long for war? Humbaba might also represent a “holdfast,” something that while alive or existing — whether an idea or an actual threat — restricts a culture from developing beyond a certain point. Many such holdfasts pop up in western literature, cf. the dragon in Beowulf for one.

While Gilgamesh and Enkidu are successful in killing Humbaba — through episodes of fainting and friendly gibes — its death suggests more of an ambiguity in their success, as if something precious has been slain all for the pride of man (and I do mean man, here). Notice that when Humbaba is killed, the heroes begin cutting down trees: “They attacked the cedars . . . [and] cleared their roots as far as the banks of the Euphrates” (30). Like Enkidu’s education through the wiles of the harlot, this victory suggests that while the heroes accomplished their great victory, something is irrevocably lost because of their endeavor. Through the harlot, Enkidu forever loses his innocence, but what is lost in the killing of Humbaba is a bit more ambiguous. Perhaps this is an ecological statement about clearing rain forests millennia before we knew what effect that practice would have.

The ambiguity continues in the gods’ reaction to the death of Humbaba and the felling of the cedars: Enkidu must die. OK, maybe it has more to do with Gilgamesh’s arrogant dismissal of Ishtar, but regardless, the Bull of Heaven is sent to punish the heroes and Uruk. Even though the bull is defeated, Enkidu must die which precipitates Gilgamesh’s search for immortality — an escape from death. Notice that while Enkidu lays dying that he curses the city (civilization), the harlot (women that led to the destruction of his innocence), and the trapper (who precipitated the education of Enkidu). Enkidu’s curses further call into question the necessity of civilization and heroic quests: perhaps fame is not worth death.

=== Humbaba ===

"Humbaba whose name is 'Hugeness,' a ferocious giant. Enlil has appointed Humbaba to guard the forest and has armed him in sevenfold terrors, terrible to all flesh is Humbaba. When he roars it is like the torrent of the storm, his breath is like fire, and his jaws are death itself. He guards the cedars so well that when the wild heifer stirs in the forest, though she is sixty leagues distant, he hears her. Humbaba is a great warrior, a battering ram. Humbaba, the watchman of the forest never sleeps." (The Norton Anthology, 23)

Humbaba was also know as Huwawa. Humbaba is a monster in the epic of Gilgamesh who guards the cedar forest in the Lebanon mountains. He is a giant being and is sometimes shown with lion's claws, long hair, and a monstrous, hairy face. Humbaba is killed by the hero Gilgamesh and his friend Enkidu who journey to the forest to cut down cedar trees. (http://www.mesopotamia.co.uk/gods/explore/humbaba.html, 2005)

=== Escape from Death ===

After Enkidu’s death, Gilgamesh rips his clothes from his body and dons animal skins, symbolic of his repudiation of civilization and renown — that which caused the death of his friend. Gilgamesh’s subsequent journey is a psychological descent into his own psyche to discover his own meaning in a life that must end in death. His epic journey is pretty pathetic as far as epic journeys go: full of tantrums and failed tasks, Gilgamesh seems to return to Uruk empty-handed. Yet, he brings the story of his travel and carves it on the bricks that make up the foundation of Uruk, suggesting that civilization is ultimately built on stories: the written text is the key to progress, friendship, and immortality. Gilgamesh, then, becomes a scapegoat: he journeyed to meet Utnapishtim so his people did not have to. Though his journeys proved ostensibly unsuccessful, he returned humanized, ready to accept his place in the world and finally death when it would come.

''Gilgamesh'' leaves us with its moral: Do not abuse power, “deal justly with your servants in the palace, deal justly before the face of the Sun” (46). ''Gilgamesh'' is both “the darkness and the light of mankind” in that he brought suffering, but ultimately brought life to his people in the form of the story. What directions for life are contained within the epic? How many of these myths do we still live with today? These stories represent the good and the bad of humanity. What do we ultimately think of the stories, myths, codes for life that ''Gilgamesh'' ultimately passes on?

== Importance of Food and Drink ==

When we are first introduced to Enkindu, it is when “he was innocent of mankind, he knew nothing of the cultivated land” (19). He also “ate grass in the hills with the gazelle and lurked with wild beasts at the water-holes” (19). Though he is biologically human, he lives like a wild animal. One aspect of his animalism is his eating habits. The food we eat, the ways it is prepared and consumed, and the rituals of hospitality are all forms of culture and civilization. In order for Enkindu to learn to be human, he must learn to eat as one. When the shepherds originally present food to him the text states that, “Enkindu could only suck the milk of wild animals. He fumbled and gaped, at a loss what to do or how he should eat the bread and drink the strong wine” (22). Because he only knows how to eat as an animal, he is an animal.

Immediately after the harlot explains to him the way of human eating, and he consumes the bread and wine like a man, “He rubbed down the matted hair of his body and anointed himself with oil. Enkindu had become a man” (22). His new discovery of human eating has led to his humanization. According to Jager, Enkindu’s “exodus from an older and more primitive and confluent world and his entrance into a human cosmos is marked by a distinctly different way of…eating and drinking.” His new understanding of how humans prepare and eat food has granted him the capacity to act as a man, and therefore be admitted into human civilization. Jager also explains that “Fully human eating begins by domesticating natural grasses, roots and berries and by transforming them into agricultural crops.” Farming shows human advancement and technology. A refined taste for food and drink and an understanding of cultivation reflects cultural appreciation. Now that Enkindu can properly eat human food, he can acknowledge the society which produces it.

== Attitudes Toward Women ==

Gilgamesh's view of women is that of a male chauvinist (according to today’s standards). Not only is he a male chauvinist, but he "is the epitome of a bad ruler: arrogant, oppressive, and brutal." (The Norton Anthology, 17)"His lust leaves no virgin to her lover, neither the warrior's daughter nor the wife of the noble; yet this is the shepherd of the city, wise, comely, and resolute." (The Norton Anthology, 19) The men of Uruk were not happy with his behavior. Even noble Enkidu is upset at the news that Gilgamesh was to take a bride’s virginity before her marriage to her groom.

When Ishtar see Gilgamesh's great beauty she exclaims in glory, "Come to me ''Gilgamesh'', and be my bridegroom; grant me seed of you body, let me be your bride and you shall be my husband."(The Norton Anthology, 30) “She tried to make Gilgamesh her husband, but he refused her and reminded her of her former lovers, whom she mercilessly killed or left injured.” (Lindemans, Micha F. \ “Ishtar” \ www.pantheon.org \ July 25, 2004) He states that he doesn’t just want to be another piece of meat in her escapades of having sex with many men and leaving them. So he declines.

Gilgamesh is a control freak and if he were to marry Ishtar, he would lose that control. Also, Gilgamesh loves virgins and not loose women. This is seen in the opening statments listed above.

As we look at attitudes toward women, we cannot just look at Gilgamesh as an individual but at the whole story. The trapper's son was scared of Enkidu at first. The trapper's son went to Gilgamesh and got a harlot, (loose woman), to take to the watering hole to seduce Enkidu so his peers, the animals, would repel against him.

To humanize Enkidu, the harlot, was sent to seduce him. Enkidu, who ran with the animals and was basically one of them, came upon the harlot at the drinking hole where she exposed her breasts, got naked with him and had sex with him for six days and seven nights. After this, Enkidu had his fill and returned to be with the animals that rejected him and ran off. We hear of Enkidu being weak legged after his sexual escapades and unable to keep up with the animals. (The Norton Anthology, 20)

Women were looked at basically as sexual elements from the beginning of this tale and this has continued throughout time. So, is Gilgamesh really as bad as he was made out to be or is he just the same as some of the men in today's society? Women throughout modern day have used sex to get what they want. This is just an example of how women even back then used sex to get what they desired even if it was for someone else.

== Archetypes in Gilgamesh ==
An archetype in ''Gilgamesh'' was the number seven. The author used this archetype, very deliberately. After taking a closer look at this literary work it was discovered the number seven was used thirty-seven times. (''Norton Anthology'', 18-47) By taking a collaborative view of literary works throughout history it is revealed the continued use of the number seven. The number seven was used 700 times in ''The Bible'' (Harris) and twenty-five times in ''The Qu’ran'' (Sahibzada). There is no mistake about the author’s reference to this particular number based upon its cultural and religious significance. It has become evident the number seven held a sacred or significant meaning. But to better understand the significance of the continued reference to a particular number, one would have to take a closer look at the historical implications.

“Most cultures of the world hold certain numbers to be especially significant, even symbolic, and this is reflected in their religions. In the Abrahamic traditions, which originate in the Middle East, the number seven is of particular importance. Some of its significance stems from the ancient Sumerian and Babylonian civilizations, which identified seven planets and framed seven days of the week around them. Very early among Middle Eastern peoples, seven became known as a "perfect" number, symbolic of completeness and goodness.” (Sahibzada).

It is believed the origin of the number seven was established by the planets that were transformed into deities. The ancient Egyptians had seven original gods; the Phoenicians seven Kabiris; the Persians seven sacred horses of Mithra with seven gates, seven alters, and seven mysteries; the Parsees seven angels opposed by seven demons, seven celestial abodes paralleled by seven lower regions. The seven gods were often represented as one seven-headed deity. The whole heaven was subjected to seven planets; hence, in nearly all the religious systems we find seven heavens. The number seven was also used in demonical religions as well. A contract with the devil had to contain seven paragraphs, was concluded for seven years and signed by the person seven times. (Blavatsky)

Religious peoples were not the only ones to reference this number. There were cultural, architectural, and ceremonial implications as well. The Cherokee Indians regard the number seven as sacred. The ceremonial significance in their culture is captured in their seven ancient ceremonies with the seventh ceremony celebrated every seven years. (Lewis & Kneberg, 175) A few of the ceremonies focus on the number seven. The first moon of spring ceremony is seven days long. The Green Corn ceremony began on the seventh of August. During this ceremony the Chief and his seven councilors fasted while the tribe gathered seven ears of corn, each from a different clan’s field. (Lewis & Kneberg, 176-177) The Cherokee’s also have purification ceremonies in which a person is immersed seven times. (Mooney, 230).

Architecture has also been influenced by the number seven. The famous pagoda of Churingham is surrounded by seven square walls, painted in seven different colors, and in the middle of each wall is a seven storied pyramid. The Buddhist use seven-tier pagoda’s to signify the seven treasures that are the blessings from the seven northern stars. (Blavatsky) Along with the most impressive monuments known to exist, The Seven Wonders of the Ancient World http://ce.eng.usf.edu/pharos/wonders/map.html

The military’s 21-gun salute is centered on the number seven. The use of this symbol is traced to early warriors demonstrating peaceful intentions and was used universally. The act varied with time, place, and the weapon being used. Originally warships fired a seven-gun salute. The number seven was probably used because of astrological and Biblical importance. There were seven planets identified and the moon changed phases every seven days. ''The Bible'' states that God rested on the seventh day after Creation, every seventh year was sabbatical and that the seven times seventh year ushered in the Jubilee year. (Headquarters, Military District of Washington)

Works Cited:

Blavatsky, H. P. “The Number Seven.” ''Theosophist'', (June, 1880.) 12 Feb. 2005 http://theosophy.org/tlodocs/hpb/NumberSeven.htm

Harris, Andrew. “Seven.” (6 July 1999). 12 Feb.2005 http://www.vic.australis.com.au/hazz/number007.html

Headquarters, Military District of Washington, ''Fact Sheet: Gun Salutes'', May 1969.

Lewis, Thomas M. N. and Madeline Kneberg. “Tribes that Slumber Indians of the Tennessee Region.” Knoxville, Tennessee: The University of Tennessee Press,tenth printing (1994).

Mooney, James. ''History, Myths, and Sacred Formulas of the Cherokees''. Asheville, North Carolina, 1992.

Sahibzada, Mehnaz. “The Symbolism of the Number Seven in Islamic Culture and Rituals.” 15 Feb. 2005 http://www.wadsworth.com/religion_d/special_features/symbols/islamic.html

''The Norton Anthology of World Masterpieces''. 7th ed., New York: W. W. Norton & Company, 1998.

== Gilgamesh Variations ==

There are many different Gilgamesh interpretations. Some representations of the story have Gilgamesh as an old man. This is incorrect, the reason behind that is whoever wrote that interpretation did not read the original. This is unfortunate because if Gilgamesh was read in the wrong interpretation; a novice reader would not understand one of the major themes of humility throughout Gilgamesh.

== External Links ==

* [http://litmuse.maconstate.edu/~glucas/archives/000360.shtml The Taming of Nature in Gilgamesh]
* [http://litmuse.maconstate.edu/~glucas/archives/000449.shtml Ecological Themes in Gilgamesh]
* [http://litmuse.maconstate.edu/~glucas/archives/000297.shtml Friendship and Two Epics]
* [http://novaonline.nv.cc.va.us/eli/eng251/gilgameshstudy.htm Gilgamesh Study Guide]

[[Category:World Literature]]

== References ==

Jager, Bernd. “Eating as natural event and as intersubjective phenomenon: Towards a phenomenology of eating." Journal of Phenomenological Psychology. Spring 1999, Vol. 30 Issue 1: 66-118. EBSCOhost. GALILEO. 6 Feb. 2005 <http://www.galileo.usg.edu >.

Epic of Gilgamesh

2005-02-20T23:51:41Z

Shawk: /* Archetypes in Gilgamesh */

[[Image:Gilgamesh.jpg|thumb|Gilgamesh]] While composed nearly five thousand years ago (2500-1500 BCE), ''Gilgamesh'' seems very as contemporary in its thematic concerns as it is alien in many of its cultural practices. Many of these themes emerge from a lost mythological tradition and a culture that is equally non-extant, the bonds of friendship, fear of death, and the quest for worldly renown still strike chords with us even in the twenty-first century.

== Historical Context ==

''Gilgamesh'' is a primary epic, composed over a thousand years by cultural stories of the legendary king, Gilgamesh, who is thought to have historically ruled Uruk circa 2700 BCE. The oral stories were probably assembled by a poet and cast into the narrative form of the epic between 2000 and 1600 BCE and finally written on clay tablets in cuneiform during the reign of Assurbanipol in 668-627 BCE.

== Gilgamesh as Epic ==

Can ''Gilgamesh'' be called an Epic? Yes and No.
No, because the term epic is usually applied to exceptionally long poems that are narrated by someone else. ''Gilgamesh'' has three entries that one may consider to be poems. On page 34 ''Gilgamesh'' cries out to the counsellors of Uruk in what I would call a short prayer. On page 43 Ea speaks to Enlil about his misdeeds, the words that are indented have the characteristics of an epic poem. Ea words center on Enlil whose deeds can control the fate of human mankind.

Then again yes, ''Gilgamesh'' could be called a Primary Epic. The story of Gilgamesh has several episodes that are legendary. The first sentence of the story states, "''Gilgamesh'' is a poem of unparalleled antiquity, the first great heroic narrative of world literature."(The Norton Anthology) On Lit muse you will find that Primary Epic means, "The work focuses on the personal concept of heroism, and the self-fulfillment and identity of the individual hero." Gilgamesh was definitely out for self-fulfillment.

== The Role of Enkidu ==
In my eyes Enkidu is the real hero of the epic.On most of the sites I visited for research, I've found that majority of the people tend to downplay Enkidus role.Some call him a wild man made noble by the "great" Gilgamesh and others say he forced Gilgamesh into his adventures or misadventures. Even the gods looked at him as a sidekick and never equal to Gilgamesh, when deciding that he must die for the killing of the Bull of Heaven, and not Gilgamesh.
The reason the Bull was killed was because Gilgamesh was mouthing off to Ishtar and like a true solider Enkidu had to step in a save Gilgamesh. On all the adventures and in all the battles Enkidu was all was the stronger warrior, but Gilgamesh would always receive the praise.Enkidu was brought in as a counterweight to Gilgamesh and ended up being his saviour.Enkidu saves the life of Gilgamesh many times and ends up giving his life for him.

When the god Anu heard the city of Uruk lamenting the cruelty of their king, he responded by demanding of the goddess of creation: “You made him, O Aruru, now create his equal; let it be as like him as his own reflection, his second self, stormy heart for stormy heart” (19). Thus Enkindu was created to counterbalance the despotic Gilgamesh: whereas Gilgamesh was two thirds god and one third man, Enkindu was two thirds beast and one third man. Enkindu also acts as a reflection to Gilgamesh in that both must learn what it means to be human. In order to do this, each must distance himself from his animal or godly instincts. As for Enkindu, Jager states that “the wild man who is about to enter the human city must…forego living in a state of absolute unity with a savage and untamed nature.” Enkindu must break the bond between himself and the wilderness in order to be cultured and civilized. Similarly, Jager notes that “The king seeking to humanly inhabit his realm must forego treating that realm as a mere physical extension of himself to which he has completely unrestricted access.” Gilgamesh, like a weaning child, must recognize the break between himself as a ruler and the kingdom he reigns over. Both must learn how to properly inhabit the human realm before they can be considered human.

== Thematic Concerns ==

The [[Epic Poetry | epic]] takes as its primary concern Gilgamesh’s wisdom that he acquires during his journeys and the monuments that he constructs upon his return. Like the Homeric epics, Gilgamesh begins ''in medias res'' during the rule of a wild king, two-thirds god and one-third man. While Gilgamesh is strong and an obvious stud — at least in his own mind, his is cruel and naive, needing to discover what it means to be human if he is to become a good ruler and father.

=== Bonds of Friendship ===

His first lesson is one of friendship through the wild man Enkidu, more of an animal than man. Like all good, lasting friendships, Gilgamesh and Enkidu first attempt to kill each other when the latter comes to Uruk. Fortunately, they do not, yet Gilgamesh does get the slight upper-hand, and they become great friends. Indeed, while there is an implicit suggestion of Gilgamesh’s superiority over Enkidu, something akin most friendships, there is one who is dominant, choosing adventures, making decisions, and directing the ultimate course of the friendship. Gilgamesh, since he is the [[heroic ideal | epic hero]], seems to take this role, perhaps also suggesting the superiority of the cultured and civilized to the animal, or natural. This motif becomes even more apparent in their first adventure.

Strong bonds are usually formed when two people have a common goal, ideal, or interest. The gods created Enkidu to try to soften Gilgamesh—make him kinder and gentler, if you will. Even now, people come in and out of life for a purpose—some to be there for a long time and some for just a moment. Their time in one's life may or may not accomplish its purpose because some are sometimes blinded by their own desires. For Enkidu, his time with Gilgamesh was relatively short, but it was a relationship that Gilgamesh would never forget. Even though their first meeting was distressing, they became best friends. Early in his existence, Enkidu had lost his physical strength (due to his encounter with the harlot), but had gained knowledge and insight (1). When Endiku first came into the city, Gilgamesh was about to go in a ravish a new bride. Enkidu knew this was wrong and tried to block him at the door. They had a tremendous fight, but that fight was the beginning of their friendship. Many friendships that start off on the wrong foot, wind up being the closest. Their friendship seems genuine, but only Gilgamesh seemed to gain anything from it. This also occurs in our friendships. One person seems to get all the glory and the other may be just along for the ride or be the one who gets things done behind the scenes—not everyone wants to be king!

Cited Works
(1) http://www.wsu.edu/~dee/MESO/GILG.HTM page 2, Tablet 1

=== Quest for Worldly Renown ===

Now that we are friends, we have to party. Enkidu soon gets bored in Uruk — “I am oppressed by idleness” (23) — and Gilgamesh suggests they go get medieval of some evil: Humbaba. This feat will also prove Gilgamesh a real hero by allowing stories to be told about his great feats of manhood:

: I will set up my name in the place where the names of famous men are written, and where no man’s name is written yet I will raise a monument to the gods.

[[Image:Grendel.jpg|thumb|Humbaba]] While Humbaba lives in the Country of the Living, seemingly quite far from Uruk, and is apparently not an immediate threat to Gilgamesh’s people, this endeavor might seem a bit dubious. Perhaps this is a commentary on what men will do when they are bored: let’s go kill something. When we are at peace, we long for war? Humbaba might also represent a “holdfast,” something that while alive or existing — whether an idea or an actual threat — restricts a culture from developing beyond a certain point. Many such holdfasts pop up in western literature, cf. the dragon in Beowulf for one.

While Gilgamesh and Enkidu are successful in killing Humbaba — through episodes of fainting and friendly gibes — its death suggests more of an ambiguity in their success, as if something precious has been slain all for the pride of man (and I do mean man, here). Notice that when Humbaba is killed, the heroes begin cutting down trees: “They attacked the cedars . . . [and] cleared their roots as far as the banks of the Euphrates” (30). Like Enkidu’s education through the wiles of the harlot, this victory suggests that while the heroes accomplished their great victory, something is irrevocably lost because of their endeavor. Through the harlot, Enkidu forever loses his innocence, but what is lost in the killing of Humbaba is a bit more ambiguous. Perhaps this is an ecological statement about clearing rain forests millennia before we knew what effect that practice would have.

The ambiguity continues in the gods’ reaction to the death of Humbaba and the felling of the cedars: Enkidu must die. OK, maybe it has more to do with Gilgamesh’s arrogant dismissal of Ishtar, but regardless, the Bull of Heaven is sent to punish the heroes and Uruk. Even though the bull is defeated, Enkidu must die which precipitates Gilgamesh’s search for immortality — an escape from death. Notice that while Enkidu lays dying that he curses the city (civilization), the harlot (women that led to the destruction of his innocence), and the trapper (who precipitated the education of Enkidu). Enkidu’s curses further call into question the necessity of civilization and heroic quests: perhaps fame is not worth death.

=== Humbaba ===

"Humbaba whose name is 'Hugeness,' a ferocious giant. Enlil has appointed Humbaba to guard the forest and has armed him in sevenfold terrors, terrible to all flesh is Humbaba. When he roars it is like the torrent of the storm, his breath is like fire, and his jaws are death itself. He guards the cedars so well that when the wild heifer stirs in the forest, though she is sixty leagues distant, he hears her. Humbaba is a great warrior, a battering ram. Humbaba, the watchman of the forest never sleeps." (The Norton Anthology, 23)

Humbaba was also know as Huwawa. Humbaba is a monster in the epic of Gilgamesh who guards the cedar forest in the Lebanon mountains. He is a giant being and is sometimes shown with lion's claws, long hair, and a monstrous, hairy face. Humbaba is killed by the hero Gilgamesh and his friend Enkidu who journey to the forest to cut down cedar trees. (http://www.mesopotamia.co.uk/gods/explore/humbaba.html, 2005)

=== Escape from Death ===

After Enkidu’s death, Gilgamesh rips his clothes from his body and dons animal skins, symbolic of his repudiation of civilization and renown — that which caused the death of his friend. Gilgamesh’s subsequent journey is a psychological descent into his own psyche to discover his own meaning in a life that must end in death. His epic journey is pretty pathetic as far as epic journeys go: full of tantrums and failed tasks, Gilgamesh seems to return to Uruk empty-handed. Yet, he brings the story of his travel and carves it on the bricks that make up the foundation of Uruk, suggesting that civilization is ultimately built on stories: the written text is the key to progress, friendship, and immortality. Gilgamesh, then, becomes a scapegoat: he journeyed to meet Utnapishtim so his people did not have to. Though his journeys proved ostensibly unsuccessful, he returned humanized, ready to accept his place in the world and finally death when it would come.

''Gilgamesh'' leaves us with its moral: Do not abuse power, “deal justly with your servants in the palace, deal justly before the face of the Sun” (46). ''Gilgamesh'' is both “the darkness and the light of mankind” in that he brought suffering, but ultimately brought life to his people in the form of the story. What directions for life are contained within the epic? How many of these myths do we still live with today? These stories represent the good and the bad of humanity. What do we ultimately think of the stories, myths, codes for life that ''Gilgamesh'' ultimately passes on?

== Importance of Food and Drink ==

When we are first introduced to Enkindu, it is when “he was innocent of mankind, he knew nothing of the cultivated land” (19). He also “ate grass in the hills with the gazelle and lurked with wild beasts at the water-holes” (19). Though he is biologically human, he lives like a wild animal. One aspect of his animalism is his eating habits. The food we eat, the ways it is prepared and consumed, and the rituals of hospitality are all forms of culture and civilization. In order for Enkindu to learn to be human, he must learn to eat as one. When the shepherds originally present food to him the text states that, “Enkindu could only suck the milk of wild animals. He fumbled and gaped, at a loss what to do or how he should eat the bread and drink the strong wine” (22). Because he only knows how to eat as an animal, he is an animal.

Immediately after the harlot explains to him the way of human eating, and he consumes the bread and wine like a man, “He rubbed down the matted hair of his body and anointed himself with oil. Enkindu had become a man” (22). His new discovery of human eating has led to his humanization. According to Jager, Enkindu’s “exodus from an older and more primitive and confluent world and his entrance into a human cosmos is marked by a distinctly different way of…eating and drinking.” His new understanding of how humans prepare and eat food has granted him the capacity to act as a man, and therefore be admitted into human civilization. Jager also explains that “Fully human eating begins by domesticating natural grasses, roots and berries and by transforming them into agricultural crops.” Farming shows human advancement and technology. A refined taste for food and drink and an understanding of cultivation reflects cultural appreciation. Now that Enkindu can properly eat human food, he can acknowledge the society which produces it.

== Attitudes Toward Women ==

Gilgamesh's view of women is that of a male chauvinist (according to today’s standards). Not only is he a male chauvinist, but he "is the epitome of a bad ruler: arrogant, oppressive, and brutal." (The Norton Anthology, 17)"His lust leaves no virgin to her lover, neither the warrior's daughter nor the wife of the noble; yet this is the shepherd of the city, wise, comely, and resolute." (The Norton Anthology, 19) The men of Uruk were not happy with his behavior. Even noble Enkidu is upset at the news that Gilgamesh was to take a bride’s virginity before her marriage to her groom.

When Ishtar see Gilgamesh's great beauty she exclaims in glory, "Come to me ''Gilgamesh'', and be my bridegroom; grant me seed of you body, let me be your bride and you shall be my husband."(The Norton Anthology, 30) “She tried to make Gilgamesh her husband, but he refused her and reminded her of her former lovers, whom she mercilessly killed or left injured.” (Lindemans, Micha F. \ “Ishtar” \ www.pantheon.org \ July 25, 2004) He states that he doesn’t just want to be another piece of meat in her escapades of having sex with many men and leaving them. So he declines.

Gilgamesh is a control freak and if he were to marry Ishtar, he would lose that control. Also, Gilgamesh loves virgins and not loose women. This is seen in the opening statments listed above.

As we look at attitudes toward women, we cannot just look at Gilgamesh as an individual but at the whole story. The trapper's son was scared of Enkidu at first. The trapper's son went to Gilgamesh and got a harlot, (loose woman), to take to the watering hole to seduce Enkidu so his peers, the animals, would repel against him.

To humanize Enkidu, the harlot, was sent to seduce him. Enkidu, who ran with the animals and was basically one of them, came upon the harlot at the drinking hole where she exposed her breasts, got naked with him and had sex with him for six days and seven nights. After this, Enkidu had his fill and returned to be with the animals that rejected him and ran off. We hear of Enkidu being weak legged after his sexual escapades and unable to keep up with the animals. (The Norton Anthology, 20)

Women were looked at basically as sexual elements from the beginning of this tale and this has continued throughout time. So, is Gilgamesh really as bad as he was made out to be or is he just the same as some of the men in today's society? Women throughout modern day have used sex to get what they want. This is just an example of how women even back then used sex to get what they desired even if it was for someone else.

== Archetypes in Gilgamesh ==
An archetype in ''Gilgamesh'' was the number seven. The author used this archetype, very deliberately. After taking a closer look at this literary work it was discovered the number seven was used thirty-seven times. (''Norton Anthology'', 18-47) By taking a collaborative view of literary works throughout history it is revealed the continued use of the number seven. The number seven was used 700 times in ''The Bible'' (Harris) and twenty-five times in ''The Qu’ran'' (Sahibzada). There is no mistake about the author’s reference to this particular number based upon its cultural and religious significance. It has become evident the number seven held a sacred or significant meaning. But to better understand the significance of the continued reference to a particular number, one would have to take a closer look at the historical implications.

“Most cultures of the world hold certain numbers to be especially significant, even symbolic, and this is reflected in their religions. In the Abrahamic traditions, which originate in the Middle East, the number seven is of particular importance. Some of its significance stems from the ancient Sumerian and Babylonian civilizations, which identified seven planets and framed seven days of the week around them. Very early among Middle Eastern peoples, seven became known as a "perfect" number, symbolic of completeness and goodness.” (Sahibzada).

It is believed the origin of the number seven was established by the planets that were transformed into deities. The ancient Egyptians had seven original gods; the Phoenicians seven Kabiris; the Persians seven sacred horses of Mithra with seven gates, seven alters, and seven mysteries; the Parsees seven angels opposed by seven demons, seven celestial abodes paralleled by seven lower regions. The seven gods were often represented as one seven-headed deity. The whole heaven was subjected to seven planets; hence, in nearly all the religious systems we find seven heavens. The number seven was also used in demonical religions as well. A contract with the devil had to contain seven paragraphs, was concluded for seven years and signed by the person seven times. (Blavatsky)

Religious peoples were not the only ones to reference this number. There were cultural, architectural, and ceremonial implications as well. The Cherokee Indians regard the number seven as sacred. The ceremonial significance in their culture is captured in their seven ancient ceremonies with the seventh ceremony celebrated every seven years. (Lewis & Kneberg, 175) A few of the ceremonies focus on the number seven. The first moon of spring ceremony is seven days long. The Green Corn ceremony began on the seventh of August. During this ceremony the Chief and his seven councilors fasted while the tribe gathered seven ears of corn, each from a different clan’s field. (Lewis & Kneberg, 176-177) The Cherokee’s also have purification ceremonies in which a person is immersed seven times. (Mooney, 230).

Architecture has also been influenced by the number seven. The famous pagoda of Churingham is surrounded by seven square walls, painted in seven different colors, and in the middle of each wall is a seven storied pyramid. The Buddhist use seven-tier pagoda’s to signify the seven treasures that are the blessings from the seven northern stars. (Blavatsky) Along with the most impressive monuments known to exist, The Seven Wonders of the Ancient World (http://ce.eng.usf.edu/pharos/wonders/map.html)

The military’s 21-gun salute is centered on the number seven. The use of this symbol is traced to early warriors demonstrating peaceful intentions and was used universally. The act varied with time, place, and the weapon being used. Originally warships fired a seven-gun salute. The number seven was probably used because of astrological and Biblical importance. There were seven planets identified and the moon changed phases every seven days. ''The Bible'' states that God rested on the seventh day after Creation, every seventh year was sabbatical and that the seven times seventh year ushered in the Jubilee year. (Headquarters, Military District of Washington)

Works Cited:

Blavatsky, H. P. “The Number Seven.” ''Theosophist'', (June, 1880.) 12 Feb. 2005 http://theosophy.org/tlodocs/hpb/NumberSeven.htm

Harris, Andrew. “Seven.” (6 July 1999). 12 Feb.2005 http://www.vic.australis.com.au/hazz/number007.html

Headquarters, Military District of Washington, ''Fact Sheet: Gun Salutes'', May 1969.

Lewis, Thomas M. N. and Madeline Kneberg. “Tribes that Slumber Indians of the Tennessee Region.” Knoxville, Tennessee: The University of Tennessee Press,tenth printing (1994).

Mooney, James. ''History, Myths, and Sacred Formulas of the Cherokees''. Asheville, North Carolina, 1992.

Sahibzada, Mehnaz. “The Symbolism of the Number Seven in Islamic Culture and Rituals.” 15 Feb. 2005 http://www.wadsworth.com/religion_d/special_features/symbols/islamic.html

''The Norton Anthology of World Masterpieces''. 7th ed., New York: W. W. Norton & Company, 1998.

== Gilgamesh Variations ==

There are many different Gilgamesh interpretations. Some representations of the story have Gilgamesh as an old man. This is incorrect, the reason behind that is whoever wrote that interpretation did not read the original. This is unfortunate because if Gilgamesh was read in the wrong interpretation; a novice reader would not understand one of the major themes of humility throughout Gilgamesh.

== External Links ==

* [http://litmuse.maconstate.edu/~glucas/archives/000360.shtml The Taming of Nature in Gilgamesh]
* [http://litmuse.maconstate.edu/~glucas/archives/000449.shtml Ecological Themes in Gilgamesh]
* [http://litmuse.maconstate.edu/~glucas/archives/000297.shtml Friendship and Two Epics]
* [http://novaonline.nv.cc.va.us/eli/eng251/gilgameshstudy.htm Gilgamesh Study Guide]

[[Category:World Literature]]

== References ==

Jager, Bernd. “Eating as natural event and as intersubjective phenomenon: Towards a phenomenology of eating." Journal of Phenomenological Psychology. Spring 1999, Vol. 30 Issue 1: 66-118. EBSCOhost. GALILEO. 6 Feb. 2005 <http://www.galileo.usg.edu >.

Epic of Gilgamesh

2005-02-20T23:51:02Z

Shawk: /* Archetypes in Gilgamesh */

[[Image:Gilgamesh.jpg|thumb|Gilgamesh]] While composed nearly five thousand years ago (2500-1500 BCE), ''Gilgamesh'' seems very as contemporary in its thematic concerns as it is alien in many of its cultural practices. Many of these themes emerge from a lost mythological tradition and a culture that is equally non-extant, the bonds of friendship, fear of death, and the quest for worldly renown still strike chords with us even in the twenty-first century.

== Historical Context ==

''Gilgamesh'' is a primary epic, composed over a thousand years by cultural stories of the legendary king, Gilgamesh, who is thought to have historically ruled Uruk circa 2700 BCE. The oral stories were probably assembled by a poet and cast into the narrative form of the epic between 2000 and 1600 BCE and finally written on clay tablets in cuneiform during the reign of Assurbanipol in 668-627 BCE.

== Gilgamesh as Epic ==

Can ''Gilgamesh'' be called an Epic? Yes and No.
No, because the term epic is usually applied to exceptionally long poems that are narrated by someone else. ''Gilgamesh'' has three entries that one may consider to be poems. On page 34 ''Gilgamesh'' cries out to the counsellors of Uruk in what I would call a short prayer. On page 43 Ea speaks to Enlil about his misdeeds, the words that are indented have the characteristics of an epic poem. Ea words center on Enlil whose deeds can control the fate of human mankind.

Then again yes, ''Gilgamesh'' could be called a Primary Epic. The story of Gilgamesh has several episodes that are legendary. The first sentence of the story states, "''Gilgamesh'' is a poem of unparalleled antiquity, the first great heroic narrative of world literature."(The Norton Anthology) On Lit muse you will find that Primary Epic means, "The work focuses on the personal concept of heroism, and the self-fulfillment and identity of the individual hero." Gilgamesh was definitely out for self-fulfillment.

== The Role of Enkidu ==
In my eyes Enkidu is the real hero of the epic.On most of the sites I visited for research, I've found that majority of the people tend to downplay Enkidus role.Some call him a wild man made noble by the "great" Gilgamesh and others say he forced Gilgamesh into his adventures or misadventures. Even the gods looked at him as a sidekick and never equal to Gilgamesh, when deciding that he must die for the killing of the Bull of Heaven, and not Gilgamesh.
The reason the Bull was killed was because Gilgamesh was mouthing off to Ishtar and like a true solider Enkidu had to step in a save Gilgamesh. On all the adventures and in all the battles Enkidu was all was the stronger warrior, but Gilgamesh would always receive the praise.Enkidu was brought in as a counterweight to Gilgamesh and ended up being his saviour.Enkidu saves the life of Gilgamesh many times and ends up giving his life for him.

When the god Anu heard the city of Uruk lamenting the cruelty of their king, he responded by demanding of the goddess of creation: “You made him, O Aruru, now create his equal; let it be as like him as his own reflection, his second self, stormy heart for stormy heart” (19). Thus Enkindu was created to counterbalance the despotic Gilgamesh: whereas Gilgamesh was two thirds god and one third man, Enkindu was two thirds beast and one third man. Enkindu also acts as a reflection to Gilgamesh in that both must learn what it means to be human. In order to do this, each must distance himself from his animal or godly instincts. As for Enkindu, Jager states that “the wild man who is about to enter the human city must…forego living in a state of absolute unity with a savage and untamed nature.” Enkindu must break the bond between himself and the wilderness in order to be cultured and civilized. Similarly, Jager notes that “The king seeking to humanly inhabit his realm must forego treating that realm as a mere physical extension of himself to which he has completely unrestricted access.” Gilgamesh, like a weaning child, must recognize the break between himself as a ruler and the kingdom he reigns over. Both must learn how to properly inhabit the human realm before they can be considered human.

== Thematic Concerns ==

The [[Epic Poetry | epic]] takes as its primary concern Gilgamesh’s wisdom that he acquires during his journeys and the monuments that he constructs upon his return. Like the Homeric epics, Gilgamesh begins ''in medias res'' during the rule of a wild king, two-thirds god and one-third man. While Gilgamesh is strong and an obvious stud — at least in his own mind, his is cruel and naive, needing to discover what it means to be human if he is to become a good ruler and father.

=== Bonds of Friendship ===

His first lesson is one of friendship through the wild man Enkidu, more of an animal than man. Like all good, lasting friendships, Gilgamesh and Enkidu first attempt to kill each other when the latter comes to Uruk. Fortunately, they do not, yet Gilgamesh does get the slight upper-hand, and they become great friends. Indeed, while there is an implicit suggestion of Gilgamesh’s superiority over Enkidu, something akin most friendships, there is one who is dominant, choosing adventures, making decisions, and directing the ultimate course of the friendship. Gilgamesh, since he is the [[heroic ideal | epic hero]], seems to take this role, perhaps also suggesting the superiority of the cultured and civilized to the animal, or natural. This motif becomes even more apparent in their first adventure.

Strong bonds are usually formed when two people have a common goal, ideal, or interest. The gods created Enkidu to try to soften Gilgamesh—make him kinder and gentler, if you will. Even now, people come in and out of life for a purpose—some to be there for a long time and some for just a moment. Their time in one's life may or may not accomplish its purpose because some are sometimes blinded by their own desires. For Enkidu, his time with Gilgamesh was relatively short, but it was a relationship that Gilgamesh would never forget. Even though their first meeting was distressing, they became best friends. Early in his existence, Enkidu had lost his physical strength (due to his encounter with the harlot), but had gained knowledge and insight (1). When Endiku first came into the city, Gilgamesh was about to go in a ravish a new bride. Enkidu knew this was wrong and tried to block him at the door. They had a tremendous fight, but that fight was the beginning of their friendship. Many friendships that start off on the wrong foot, wind up being the closest. Their friendship seems genuine, but only Gilgamesh seemed to gain anything from it. This also occurs in our friendships. One person seems to get all the glory and the other may be just along for the ride or be the one who gets things done behind the scenes—not everyone wants to be king!

Cited Works
(1) http://www.wsu.edu/~dee/MESO/GILG.HTM page 2, Tablet 1

=== Quest for Worldly Renown ===

Now that we are friends, we have to party. Enkidu soon gets bored in Uruk — “I am oppressed by idleness” (23) — and Gilgamesh suggests they go get medieval of some evil: Humbaba. This feat will also prove Gilgamesh a real hero by allowing stories to be told about his great feats of manhood:

: I will set up my name in the place where the names of famous men are written, and where no man’s name is written yet I will raise a monument to the gods.

[[Image:Grendel.jpg|thumb|Humbaba]] While Humbaba lives in the Country of the Living, seemingly quite far from Uruk, and is apparently not an immediate threat to Gilgamesh’s people, this endeavor might seem a bit dubious. Perhaps this is a commentary on what men will do when they are bored: let’s go kill something. When we are at peace, we long for war? Humbaba might also represent a “holdfast,” something that while alive or existing — whether an idea or an actual threat — restricts a culture from developing beyond a certain point. Many such holdfasts pop up in western literature, cf. the dragon in Beowulf for one.

While Gilgamesh and Enkidu are successful in killing Humbaba — through episodes of fainting and friendly gibes — its death suggests more of an ambiguity in their success, as if something precious has been slain all for the pride of man (and I do mean man, here). Notice that when Humbaba is killed, the heroes begin cutting down trees: “They attacked the cedars . . . [and] cleared their roots as far as the banks of the Euphrates” (30). Like Enkidu’s education through the wiles of the harlot, this victory suggests that while the heroes accomplished their great victory, something is irrevocably lost because of their endeavor. Through the harlot, Enkidu forever loses his innocence, but what is lost in the killing of Humbaba is a bit more ambiguous. Perhaps this is an ecological statement about clearing rain forests millennia before we knew what effect that practice would have.

The ambiguity continues in the gods’ reaction to the death of Humbaba and the felling of the cedars: Enkidu must die. OK, maybe it has more to do with Gilgamesh’s arrogant dismissal of Ishtar, but regardless, the Bull of Heaven is sent to punish the heroes and Uruk. Even though the bull is defeated, Enkidu must die which precipitates Gilgamesh’s search for immortality — an escape from death. Notice that while Enkidu lays dying that he curses the city (civilization), the harlot (women that led to the destruction of his innocence), and the trapper (who precipitated the education of Enkidu). Enkidu’s curses further call into question the necessity of civilization and heroic quests: perhaps fame is not worth death.

=== Humbaba ===

"Humbaba whose name is 'Hugeness,' a ferocious giant. Enlil has appointed Humbaba to guard the forest and has armed him in sevenfold terrors, terrible to all flesh is Humbaba. When he roars it is like the torrent of the storm, his breath is like fire, and his jaws are death itself. He guards the cedars so well that when the wild heifer stirs in the forest, though she is sixty leagues distant, he hears her. Humbaba is a great warrior, a battering ram. Humbaba, the watchman of the forest never sleeps." (The Norton Anthology, 23)

Humbaba was also know as Huwawa. Humbaba is a monster in the epic of Gilgamesh who guards the cedar forest in the Lebanon mountains. He is a giant being and is sometimes shown with lion's claws, long hair, and a monstrous, hairy face. Humbaba is killed by the hero Gilgamesh and his friend Enkidu who journey to the forest to cut down cedar trees. (http://www.mesopotamia.co.uk/gods/explore/humbaba.html, 2005)

=== Escape from Death ===

After Enkidu’s death, Gilgamesh rips his clothes from his body and dons animal skins, symbolic of his repudiation of civilization and renown — that which caused the death of his friend. Gilgamesh’s subsequent journey is a psychological descent into his own psyche to discover his own meaning in a life that must end in death. His epic journey is pretty pathetic as far as epic journeys go: full of tantrums and failed tasks, Gilgamesh seems to return to Uruk empty-handed. Yet, he brings the story of his travel and carves it on the bricks that make up the foundation of Uruk, suggesting that civilization is ultimately built on stories: the written text is the key to progress, friendship, and immortality. Gilgamesh, then, becomes a scapegoat: he journeyed to meet Utnapishtim so his people did not have to. Though his journeys proved ostensibly unsuccessful, he returned humanized, ready to accept his place in the world and finally death when it would come.

''Gilgamesh'' leaves us with its moral: Do not abuse power, “deal justly with your servants in the palace, deal justly before the face of the Sun” (46). ''Gilgamesh'' is both “the darkness and the light of mankind” in that he brought suffering, but ultimately brought life to his people in the form of the story. What directions for life are contained within the epic? How many of these myths do we still live with today? These stories represent the good and the bad of humanity. What do we ultimately think of the stories, myths, codes for life that ''Gilgamesh'' ultimately passes on?

== Importance of Food and Drink ==

When we are first introduced to Enkindu, it is when “he was innocent of mankind, he knew nothing of the cultivated land” (19). He also “ate grass in the hills with the gazelle and lurked with wild beasts at the water-holes” (19). Though he is biologically human, he lives like a wild animal. One aspect of his animalism is his eating habits. The food we eat, the ways it is prepared and consumed, and the rituals of hospitality are all forms of culture and civilization. In order for Enkindu to learn to be human, he must learn to eat as one. When the shepherds originally present food to him the text states that, “Enkindu could only suck the milk of wild animals. He fumbled and gaped, at a loss what to do or how he should eat the bread and drink the strong wine” (22). Because he only knows how to eat as an animal, he is an animal.

Immediately after the harlot explains to him the way of human eating, and he consumes the bread and wine like a man, “He rubbed down the matted hair of his body and anointed himself with oil. Enkindu had become a man” (22). His new discovery of human eating has led to his humanization. According to Jager, Enkindu’s “exodus from an older and more primitive and confluent world and his entrance into a human cosmos is marked by a distinctly different way of…eating and drinking.” His new understanding of how humans prepare and eat food has granted him the capacity to act as a man, and therefore be admitted into human civilization. Jager also explains that “Fully human eating begins by domesticating natural grasses, roots and berries and by transforming them into agricultural crops.” Farming shows human advancement and technology. A refined taste for food and drink and an understanding of cultivation reflects cultural appreciation. Now that Enkindu can properly eat human food, he can acknowledge the society which produces it.

== Attitudes Toward Women ==

Gilgamesh's view of women is that of a male chauvinist (according to today’s standards). Not only is he a male chauvinist, but he "is the epitome of a bad ruler: arrogant, oppressive, and brutal." (The Norton Anthology, 17)"His lust leaves no virgin to her lover, neither the warrior's daughter nor the wife of the noble; yet this is the shepherd of the city, wise, comely, and resolute." (The Norton Anthology, 19) The men of Uruk were not happy with his behavior. Even noble Enkidu is upset at the news that Gilgamesh was to take a bride’s virginity before her marriage to her groom.

When Ishtar see Gilgamesh's great beauty she exclaims in glory, "Come to me ''Gilgamesh'', and be my bridegroom; grant me seed of you body, let me be your bride and you shall be my husband."(The Norton Anthology, 30) “She tried to make Gilgamesh her husband, but he refused her and reminded her of her former lovers, whom she mercilessly killed or left injured.” (Lindemans, Micha F. \ “Ishtar” \ www.pantheon.org \ July 25, 2004) He states that he doesn’t just want to be another piece of meat in her escapades of having sex with many men and leaving them. So he declines.

Gilgamesh is a control freak and if he were to marry Ishtar, he would lose that control. Also, Gilgamesh loves virgins and not loose women. This is seen in the opening statments listed above.

As we look at attitudes toward women, we cannot just look at Gilgamesh as an individual but at the whole story. The trapper's son was scared of Enkidu at first. The trapper's son went to Gilgamesh and got a harlot, (loose woman), to take to the watering hole to seduce Enkidu so his peers, the animals, would repel against him.

To humanize Enkidu, the harlot, was sent to seduce him. Enkidu, who ran with the animals and was basically one of them, came upon the harlot at the drinking hole where she exposed her breasts, got naked with him and had sex with him for six days and seven nights. After this, Enkidu had his fill and returned to be with the animals that rejected him and ran off. We hear of Enkidu being weak legged after his sexual escapades and unable to keep up with the animals. (The Norton Anthology, 20)

Women were looked at basically as sexual elements from the beginning of this tale and this has continued throughout time. So, is Gilgamesh really as bad as he was made out to be or is he just the same as some of the men in today's society? Women throughout modern day have used sex to get what they want. This is just an example of how women even back then used sex to get what they desired even if it was for someone else.

== Archetypes in Gilgamesh ==
An archetype in Gilgamesh was the number seven. The author used this archetype, very deliberately. After taking a closer look at this literary work it was discovered the number seven was used thirty-seven times. (''Norton Anthology'', 18-47) By taking a collaborative view of literary works throughout history it is revealed the continued use of the number seven. The number seven was used 700 times in ''The Bible'' (Harris) and twenty-five times in ''The Qu’ran'' (Sahibzada). There is no mistake about the author’s reference to this particular number based upon its cultural and religious significance. It has become evident the number seven held a sacred or significant meaning. But to better understand the significance of the continued reference to a particular number, one would have to take a closer look at the historical implications.

“Most cultures of the world hold certain numbers to be especially significant, even symbolic, and this is reflected in their religions. In the Abrahamic traditions, which originate in the Middle East, the number seven is of particular importance. Some of its significance stems from the ancient Sumerian and Babylonian civilizations, which identified seven planets and framed seven days of the week around them. Very early among Middle Eastern peoples, seven became known as a "perfect" number, symbolic of completeness and goodness.” (Sahibzada).

It is believed the origin of the number seven was established by the planets that were transformed into deities. The ancient Egyptians had seven original gods; the Phoenicians seven Kabiris; the Persians seven sacred horses of Mithra with seven gates, seven alters, and seven mysteries; the Parsees seven angels opposed by seven demons, seven celestial abodes paralleled by seven lower regions. The seven gods were often represented as one seven-headed deity. The whole heaven was subjected to seven planets; hence, in nearly all the religious systems we find seven heavens. The number seven was also used in demonical religions as well. A contract with the devil had to contain seven paragraphs, was concluded for seven years and signed by the person seven times. (Blavatsky)

Religious peoples were not the only ones to reference this number. There were cultural, architectural, and ceremonial implications as well. The Cherokee Indians regard the number seven as sacred. The ceremonial significance in their culture is captured in their seven ancient ceremonies with the seventh ceremony celebrated every seven years. (Lewis & Kneberg, 175) A few of the ceremonies focus on the number seven. The first moon of spring ceremony is seven days long. The Green Corn ceremony began on the seventh of August. During this ceremony the Chief and his seven councilors fasted while the tribe gathered seven ears of corn, each from a different clan’s field. (Lewis & Kneberg, 176-177) The Cherokee’s also have purification ceremonies in which a person is immersed seven times. (Mooney, 230).

Architecture has also been influenced by the number seven. The famous pagoda of Churingham is surrounded by seven square walls, painted in seven different colors, and in the middle of each wall is a seven storied pyramid. The Buddhist use seven-tier pagoda’s to signify the seven treasures that are the blessings from the seven northern stars. (Blavatsky) Along with the most impressive monuments known to exist, The Seven Wonders of the Ancient World (http://ce.eng.usf.edu/pharos/wonders/map.html)

The military’s 21-gun salute is centered on the number seven. The use of this symbol is traced to early warriors demonstrating peaceful intentions and was used universally. The act varied with time, place, and the weapon being used. Originally warships fired a seven-gun salute. The number seven was probably used because of astrological and Biblical importance. There were seven planets identified and the moon changed phases every seven days. ''The Bible'' states that God rested on the seventh day after Creation, every seventh year was sabbatical and that the seven times seventh year ushered in the Jubilee year. (Headquarters, Military District of Washington)

Works Cited:

Blavatsky, H. P. “The Number Seven.” ''Theosophist'', (June, 1880.) 12 Feb. 2005 http://theosophy.org/tlodocs/hpb/NumberSeven.htm

Harris, Andrew. “Seven.” (6 July 1999). 12 Feb.2005 http://www.vic.australis.com.au/hazz/number007.html

Headquarters, Military District of Washington, ''Fact Sheet: Gun Salutes'', May 1969.

Lewis, Thomas M. N. and Madeline Kneberg. “Tribes that Slumber Indians of the Tennessee Region.” Knoxville, Tennessee: The University of Tennessee Press,tenth printing (1994).

Mooney, James. ''History, Myths, and Sacred Formulas of the Cherokees''. Asheville, North Carolina, 1992.

Sahibzada, Mehnaz. “The Symbolism of the Number Seven in Islamic Culture and Rituals.” 15 Feb. 2005 http://www.wadsworth.com/religion_d/special_features/symbols/islamic.html

''The Norton Anthology of World Masterpieces''. 7th ed., New York: W. W. Norton & Company, 1998.

== Gilgamesh Variations ==

There are many different Gilgamesh interpretations. Some representations of the story have Gilgamesh as an old man. This is incorrect, the reason behind that is whoever wrote that interpretation did not read the original. This is unfortunate because if Gilgamesh was read in the wrong interpretation; a novice reader would not understand one of the major themes of humility throughout Gilgamesh.

== External Links ==

* [http://litmuse.maconstate.edu/~glucas/archives/000360.shtml The Taming of Nature in Gilgamesh]
* [http://litmuse.maconstate.edu/~glucas/archives/000449.shtml Ecological Themes in Gilgamesh]
* [http://litmuse.maconstate.edu/~glucas/archives/000297.shtml Friendship and Two Epics]
* [http://novaonline.nv.cc.va.us/eli/eng251/gilgameshstudy.htm Gilgamesh Study Guide]

[[Category:World Literature]]

== References ==

Jager, Bernd. “Eating as natural event and as intersubjective phenomenon: Towards a phenomenology of eating." Journal of Phenomenological Psychology. Spring 1999, Vol. 30 Issue 1: 66-118. EBSCOhost. GALILEO. 6 Feb. 2005 <http://www.galileo.usg.edu >.