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Epic of Gilgamesh/Enlil

2006-06-28T01:05:36Z

Kroyal: summary of enlil

Enlil was the god of wind, or the sky between earth and heaven. The name Enlil is meant to mean Lord of Wind. Enlil was also known as the inventor of the hoe, which caused many things to grow. In the epic of Gilgamesh, Humbaba is the protégé of the god Enlil, and the forest is a trap set by Enlil to destroy Gilgamesh and Enkidu. Gilgamesh and Enkidu kill Humbaba, but Enlil has brought the case to the Anunnaki. Enkidu is punished because of his wrong doings.

Works Cited:

"Epic of Gilgamesh.” ''Library of Halexandria''. 2003. Dan Sewell Ward. 27 June 2006. <http://www.halexandria.org/dward188.htm>

Epic of Gilgamesh

2006-06-28T00:41:55Z

Kroyal: added enlil

[[Image:Gilgamesh.jpg|thumb|Gilgamesh]] While composed nearly five thousand years ago (2500-1500 BCE), ''Gilgamesh'' seems very as contemporary in its thematic concerns as it is alien in many of its cultural practices. Many of these themes emerge from a lost mythological tradition and a culture that is equally non-extant, the bonds of friendship, fear of death, and the quest for worldly renown still strike chords with us even in the twenty-first century.

==Characters==
* [[Gilgamesh]]
* [[Enkidu]]
* [[Anu]]
* [[Ishtar]]
* [[Enlil]]

== Historical Context ==

''Gilgamesh'' is a primary epic, composed over a thousand years by cultural stories of the legendary king, Gilgamesh, who is thought to have historically ruled Uruk circa 2700 BCE. The oral stories were probably assembled by a poet and cast into the narrative form of the epic between 2000 and 1600 BCE and finally written on clay tablets in cuneiform during the reign of Assurbanipol in 668-627 BCE.

== Gilgamesh as Epic ==

Can ''Gilgamesh'' be called an Epic? Yes and No.

No, because the term epic is usually applied to exceptionally long poems that are narrated by someone else. ''Gilgamesh'' has three entries that one may consider to be poems. On page 34 ''Gilgamesh'' cries out to the counsellors of Uruk in what I would call a short prayer. On page 43 Ea speaks to Enlil about his misdeeds, the words that are indented have the characteristics of an epic poem. Ea words center on Enlil whose deeds can control the fate of human mankind.

Then again yes, ''Gilgamesh'' could be called a Primary Epic. The story of Gilgamesh has several episodes that are legendary. The first sentence of the story states, "''Gilgamesh'' is a poem of unparalleled antiquity, the first great heroic narrative of world literature" (Norton). A "[[Epic_Poetry#Primary_Epic|primary epic]]" "focuses on the personal concept of heroism, and the self-fulfillment and identity of the individual hero." Gilgamesh was definitely out for self-fulfillment. The ''Epic of Gilgamesh'' contains everything we can expect from a great epic literature. It portrays fantastic geographies, exotic characters, exhausting quests, heroic battles with monsters, supernatural beings and natural forces. Most important of all, it is an outstanding story of a great epic hero who is compelled to meet his destiny and who rises to every challenge with courage and determination.

== The Role of Enkidu ==
When the god Anu heard the city of Uruk lamenting the cruelty of their king, he responded by demanding of the goddess of creation: “You made him, O Aruru, now create his equal; let it be as like him as his own reflection, his second self, stormy heart for stormy heart” (19). Thus [[Enkidu]] was created to counterbalance the despotic Gilgamesh: whereas Gilgamesh was two thirds god and one third man, Enkidu was two thirds beast and one third man. Enkidu also acts as a reflection to Gilgamesh in that both must learn what it means to be human. In order to do this, each must distance himself from his animal or godly instincts. As for Enkidu, Jager states that “the wild man who is about to enter the human city must…forego living in a state of absolute unity with a savage and untamed nature.” Enkidu must break the bond between himself and the wilderness in order to be cultured and civilized. Similarly, Jager notes that “The king seeking to humanly inhabit his realm must forego treating that realm as a mere physical extension of himself to which he has completely unrestricted access.” Gilgamesh, like a weaning child, must recognize the break between himself as a ruler and the kingdom he reigns over. Both must learn how to properly inhabit the human realm before they can be considered human.

== Thematic Concerns ==

The [[Epic Poetry | epic]] takes as its primary concern Gilgamesh’s wisdom that he acquires during his journeys and the monuments that he constructs upon his return. Like the Homeric epics, Gilgamesh begins ''in medias res'' during the rule of a wild king, two-thirds god and one-third man. While Gilgamesh is strong and an obvious stud — at least in his own mind, his is cruel and naive, needing to discover what it means to be human if he is to become a good ruler and father.

=== Bonds of Friendship ===

His first lesson is one of friendship through the wild man Enkidu, more of an animal than man. Like all good, lasting friendships, Gilgamesh and Enkidu first attempt to kill each other when the latter comes to Uruk. Fortunately, they do not, yet Gilgamesh does get the slight upper-hand, and they become great friends. Indeed, while there is an implicit suggestion of Gilgamesh’s superiority over Enkidu, something akin most friendships, there is one who is dominant, choosing adventures, making decisions, and directing the ultimate course of the friendship. Gilgamesh, since he is the [[heroic ideal | epic hero]], seems to take this role, perhaps also suggesting the superiority of the cultured and civilized to the animal, or natural. This motif becomes even more apparent in their first adventure.

Strong bonds are usually formed when two people have a common goal, ideal, or interest. As stated in the epic, the gods created Enkidu to try to soften Gilgamesh-make him kinder and gentler. It was as if Homer wanted Gilgamesh to be perceived to be a bad little boy and provide an alter-ego to help Gilgamesh mature. People come in and out of one’s life for a purpose--some to be there for a long time and some for just a moment. Some are there to provide a particular purpose--maybe to teach a certain life’s lesson--and some to change lives forever--maybe a child or a teacher. Their time in one’s life may or may not accomplish its purpose because some are blinded by selfish desires. For Enkidu, his time with Gilgamesh was relatively short, but it was a relationship that Gilgamesh would never forget and which would affect him the rest of his own life. Even though their first meeting was stressful, they became best friends. Early in his existence, Enkidu had lost his physical strength through the trickery of sex with an encounter with a harlot. “It was Gilgamesh that sent a priestess to teach Enkidu the power of civilization, whereas by meeting Enkidu Gilgamesh felt for the first time the need to share and grow, it was through their friendship that Gilgamesh becomes less self-absorbed and most certainly, less lonely (Lishtar).” “Shamhat meets Enkidu at the watering-hole where all the wild animals gather; she offers herself to him and he submits, instantly losing his strength and wildness, but he gains understanding and knowledge. He laments for his lost state (Hooker, Tablet 1)”. Homer seemed to be presenting Enkidu in a more animalistic manner at first and then shows him becoming more human.

When Enkidu first came into the city, Gilgamesh, though not the groom, was about to go in and ravish a new bride. “Enkidu stands in front of the door of the marital chamber and blocks Gilgamesh's way. They fight furiously until Gilgamesh wins the upper hand; Enkidu concedes Gilgamesh's superiority and the two embrace and become devoted friends (Hooker, Tablet 2)”. Some believe that Gilgamesh and Enkidu were lovers, but Lishtar noted that, “…it is not implied in the text that Gilgamesh and Enkidu were lovers in the physical sense. They were though the best friends possible in all worlds, and this is a grace beyond measure (Lishtar)”. This is simply a tale, but ”the modern ideas and interpretations have been applied to it. This is not all bad because it helps relate to this ancient text, but when it comes down to it, it is not likely that this story is about sexuality (''Gilgamesh'').” Many friendships that start off with turmoil, wind up being the closest. Their friendship was genuine. Enkidu does seem to enjoy the camaraderie that he shares with Gilgamesh and when they enter the forest to cut down the cedar tress, he is the one who stands up to Humbaba, the great demon. “Enkidu shouts at Humbaba that the two of them are much stronger than the demon (Hooker, Tablet 5)”. “This is the real meaning of the bond between Enkidu and Gilgamesh, ideal self and bright shadow that stands by wherever we are (Lishtar).” This also occurs in one’s friendships today. One person seems to relish in the glory and the other may be just along for the ride or be the one who gets things done behind the scenes--not everyone wants to be king!

=== Quest for Worldly Renown ===

Now that we are friends, we have to party. Enkidu soon gets bored in Uruk — “I am oppressed by idleness” (23) — and Gilgamesh suggests they go get medieval of some evil: Humbaba. This feat will also prove Gilgamesh a real hero by allowing stories to be told about his great feats of manhood:

: I will set up my name in the place where the names of famous men are written, and where no man’s name is written yet I will raise a monument to the gods.

[[Image:Grendel.jpg|thumb|Humbaba]] While Humbaba lives in the Country of the Living, seemingly quite far from Uruk, and is apparently not an immediate threat to Gilgamesh’s people, this endeavor might seem a bit dubious. Perhaps this is a commentary on what men will do when they are bored: let’s go kill something. When we are at peace, we long for war? Humbaba might also represent a “holdfast,” something that while alive or existing — whether an idea or an actual threat — restricts a culture from developing beyond a certain point. Many such holdfasts pop up in western literature, cf. the dragon in Beowulf for one.

While Gilgamesh and Enkidu are successful in killing Humbaba — through episodes of fainting and friendly gibes — its death suggests more of an ambiguity in their success, as if something precious has been slain all for the pride of man (and I do mean man, here). Notice that when Humbaba is killed, the heroes begin cutting down trees: “They attacked the cedars . . . [and] cleared their roots as far as the banks of the Euphrates” (30). Like Enkidu’s education through the wiles of the harlot, this victory suggests that while the heroes accomplished their great victory, something is irrevocably lost because of their endeavor. Through the harlot, Enkidu forever loses his innocence, but what is lost in the killing of Humbaba is a bit more ambiguous. Perhaps this is an ecological statement about clearing rain forests millennia before we knew what effect that practice would have.

The ambiguity continues in the gods’ reaction to the death of Humbaba and the felling of the cedars: Enkidu must die. OK, maybe it has more to do with Gilgamesh’s arrogant dismissal of Ishtar, but regardless, the Bull of Heaven is sent to punish the heroes and Uruk. Even though the bull is defeated, Enkidu must die which precipitates Gilgamesh’s search for immortality — an escape from death. Notice that while Enkidu lays dying that he curses the city (civilization), the harlot (women that led to the destruction of his innocence), and the trapper (who precipitated the education of Enkidu). Enkidu’s curses further call into question the necessity of civilization and heroic quests: perhaps fame is not worth death.

=== Humbaba ===

"Humbaba whose name is 'Hugeness,' a ferocious giant. Enlil has appointed Humbaba to guard the forest and has armed him in sevenfold terrors, terrible to all flesh is Humbaba. When he roars it is like the torrent of the storm, his breath is like fire, and his jaws are death itself. He guards the cedars so well that when the wild heifer stirs in the forest, though she is sixty leagues distant, he hears her. Humbaba is a great warrior, a battering ram. Humbaba, the watchman of the forest never sleeps." (The Norton Anthology, 23)

Humbaba was also know as Huwawa. Humbaba is a monster in the epic of Gilgamesh who guards the cedar forest in the Lebanon mountains. He is a giant being and is sometimes shown with lion's claws, long hair, and a monstrous, hairy face. Humbaba is killed by the hero Gilgamesh and his friend Enkidu who journey to the forest to cut down cedar trees. (http://www.mesopotamia.co.uk/gods/explore/humbaba.html, 2005)

=== Escape from Death ===

After Enkidu’s death, Gilgamesh rips his clothes from his body and dons animal skins, symbolic of his repudiation of civilization and renown — that which caused the death of his friend. Gilgamesh’s subsequent journey is a psychological descent into his own psyche to discover his own meaning in a life that must end in death. His epic journey is pretty pathetic as far as epic journeys go: full of tantrums and failed tasks, Gilgamesh seems to return to Uruk empty-handed. Yet, he brings the story of his travel and carves it on the bricks that make up the foundation of Uruk, suggesting that civilization is ultimately built on stories: the written text is the key to progress, friendship, and immortality. Gilgamesh, then, becomes a scapegoat: he journeyed to meet Utnapishtim so his people did not have to. Though his journeys proved ostensibly unsuccessful, he returned humanized, ready to accept his place in the world and finally death when it would come.

''Gilgamesh'' leaves us with its moral: Do not abuse power, “deal justly with your servants in the palace, deal justly before the face of the Sun” (46). ''Gilgamesh'' is both “the darkness and the light of mankind” in that he brought suffering, but ultimately brought life to his people in the form of the story. What directions for life are contained within the epic? How many of these myths do we still live with today? These stories represent the good and the bad of humanity. What do we ultimately think of the stories, myths, codes for life that ''Gilgamesh'' ultimately passes on?

== Importance of Food and Drink ==

When we are first introduced to Enkindu, it is when “he was innocent of mankind, he knew nothing of the cultivated land” (19). He also “ate grass in the hills with the gazelle and lurked with wild beasts at the water-holes” (19). Though he is biologically human, he lives like a wild animal. One aspect of his animalism is his eating habits. The food we eat, the ways it is prepared and consumed, and the rituals of hospitality are all forms of culture and civilization. In order for Enkindu to learn to be human, he must learn to eat as one. When the shepherds originally present food to him the text states that, “Enkindu could only suck the milk of wild animals. He fumbled and gaped, at a loss what to do or how he should eat the bread and drink the strong wine” (22). Because he only knows how to eat as an animal, he is an animal.

Immediately after the harlot explains to him the way of human eating, and he consumes the bread and wine like a man, “He rubbed down the matted hair of his body and anointed himself with oil. Enkindu had become a man” (22). His new discovery of human eating has led to his humanization. According to Jager, Enkindu’s “exodus from an older and more primitive and confluent world and his entrance into a human cosmos is marked by a distinctly different way of…eating and drinking.” His new understanding of how humans prepare and eat food has granted him the capacity to act as a man, and therefore be admitted into human civilization. Jager also explains that “Fully human eating begins by domesticating natural grasses, roots and berries and by transforming them into agricultural crops.” Farming shows human advancement and technology. A refined taste for food and drink and an understanding of cultivation reflects cultural appreciation. Now that Enkindu can properly eat human food, he can acknowledge the society which produces it.

== Attitudes Toward Women ==

Gilgamesh's view of women is that of a male chauvinist (according to today’s standards). Not only is he a male chauvinist, but he "is the epitome of a bad ruler: arrogant, oppressive, and brutal." (The Norton Anthology, 17)"His lust leaves no virgin to her lover, neither the warrior's daughter nor the wife of the noble; yet this is the shepherd of the city, wise, comely, and resolute." (The Norton Anthology, 19) The men of Uruk were not happy with his behavior. Even noble Enkidu is upset at the news that Gilgamesh was to take a bride’s virginity before her marriage to her groom.

When Ishtar see Gilgamesh's great beauty she exclaims in glory, "Come to me ''Gilgamesh'', and be my bridegroom; grant me seed of you body, let me be your bride and you shall be my husband."(The Norton Anthology, 30) “She tried to make Gilgamesh her husband, but he refused her and reminded her of her former lovers, whom she mercilessly killed or left injured.” (Lindemans, Micha F. \ “Ishtar” \ www.pantheon.org \ July 25, 2004) He states that he doesn’t just want to be another piece of meat in her escapades of having sex with many men and leaving them. So he declines.

Gilgamesh is a control freak and if he were to marry Ishtar, he would lose that control. Also, Gilgamesh loves virgins and not loose women. This is seen in the opening statments listed above.

As we look at attitudes toward women, we cannot just look at Gilgamesh as an individual but at the whole story. The trapper's son was scared of Enkidu at first. The trapper's son went to Gilgamesh and got a harlot, (loose woman), to take to the watering hole to seduce Enkidu so his peers, the animals, would repel against him.

To humanize Enkidu, the harlot, was sent to seduce him. Enkidu, who ran with the animals and was basically one of them, came upon the harlot at the drinking hole where she exposed her breasts, got naked with him and had sex with him for six days and seven nights. After this, Enkidu had his fill and returned to be with the animals that rejected him and ran off. We hear of Enkidu being weak legged after his sexual escapades and unable to keep up with the animals. (The Norton Anthology, 20)

Women were looked at basically as sexual elements from the beginning of this tale and this has continued throughout time. So, is Gilgamesh really as bad as he was made out to be or is he just the same as some of the men in today's society? Women throughout modern day have used sex to get what they want. This is just an example of how women even back then used sex to get what they desired even if it was for someone else.

== Archetypes in Gilgamesh ==
An archetype in ''Gilgamesh'' was the number seven. The author used this archetype, very deliberately. After taking a closer look at this literary work it was discovered the number seven was used thirty-seven times. (''Norton Anthology'', 18-47) By taking a collaborative view of literary works throughout history it is revealed the continued use of the number seven. The number seven was used 700 times in ''The Bible'' (Harris) and twenty-five times in ''The Qu’ran'' (Sahibzada). There is no mistake about the author’s reference to this particular number based upon its cultural and religious significance. It has become evident the number seven held a sacred or significant meaning. But to better understand the significance of the continued reference to a particular number, one would have to take a closer look at the historical implications.

“Most cultures of the world hold certain numbers to be especially significant, even symbolic, and this is reflected in their religions. In the Abrahamic traditions, which originate in the Middle East, the number seven is of particular importance. Some of its significance stems from the ancient Sumerian and Babylonian civilizations, which identified seven planets and framed seven days of the week around them. Very early among Middle Eastern peoples, seven became known as a "perfect" number, symbolic of completeness and goodness.” (Sahibzada).

It is believed the origin of the number seven was established by the planets that were transformed into deities. The ancient Egyptians had seven original gods; the Phoenicians seven Kabiris; the Persians seven sacred horses of Mithra with seven gates, seven alters, and seven mysteries; the Parsees seven angels opposed by seven demons, seven celestial abodes paralleled by seven lower regions. The seven gods were often represented as one seven-headed deity. The whole heaven was subjected to seven planets; hence, in nearly all the religious systems we find seven heavens. The number seven was also used in demonical religions as well. A contract with the devil had to contain seven paragraphs, was concluded for seven years and signed by the person seven times. (Blavatsky)

Religious peoples were not the only ones to reference this number. There were cultural, architectural, and ceremonial implications as well. The Cherokee Indians regard the number seven as sacred. The ceremonial significance in their culture is captured in their seven ancient ceremonies with the seventh ceremony celebrated every seven years. (Lewis & Kneberg, 175) A few of the ceremonies focus on the number seven. The first moon of spring ceremony is seven days long. The Green Corn ceremony began on the seventh of August. During this ceremony the Chief and his seven councilors fasted while the tribe gathered seven ears of corn, each from a different clan’s field. (Lewis & Kneberg, 176-177) The Cherokee’s also have purification ceremonies in which a person is immersed seven times. (Mooney, 230).

Architecture has also been influenced by the number seven. The famous pagoda of Churingham is surrounded by seven square walls, painted in seven different colors, and in the middle of each wall is a seven storied pyramid. The Buddhist use seven-tier pagoda’s to signify the seven treasures that are the blessings from the seven northern stars. (Blavatsky) Along with the most impressive monuments known to exist, The Seven Wonders of the Ancient World http://ce.eng.usf.edu/pharos/wonders/map.html

The military’s 21-gun salute is centered on the number seven. The use of this symbol is traced to early warriors demonstrating peaceful intentions and was used universally. The act varied with time, place, and the weapon being used. Originally warships fired a seven-gun salute. The number seven was probably used because of astrological and Biblical importance. There were seven planets identified and the moon changed phases every seven days. ''The Bible'' states that God rested on the seventh day after Creation, every seventh year was sabbatical and that the seven times seventh year ushered in the Jubilee year. (Headquarters, Military District of Washington)

== External Links ==

* [http://litmuse.maconstate.edu/~glucas/archives/000360.shtml The Taming of Nature in Gilgamesh]
* [http://litmuse.maconstate.edu/~glucas/archives/000449.shtml Ecological Themes in Gilgamesh]
* [http://litmuse.maconstate.edu/~glucas/archives/000297.shtml Friendship and Two Epics]
* [http://novaonline.nv.cc.va.us/eli/eng251/gilgameshstudy.htm Gilgamesh Study Guide]

[[Category:World Literature]]

== Works Cited ==

* Blavatsky, H. P. “The Number Seven.” ''Theosophist'', (June, 1880.) 12 Feb. 2005 <http://theosophy.org/tlodocs/hpb/NumberSeven.htm>.

* “Gilgamesh.” [http://www.auburn.edu/~lundbmc/#Conclusion Conclusion]. 16 February, 2004.

* Harris, Andrew. “Seven.” (6 July 1999). 12 Feb.2005 http://www.vic.australis.com.au/hazz/number007.html

* Headquarters, Military District of Washington, ''Fact Sheet: Gun Salutes'', May 1969.

* Hooker, Richard. “Mesopotamia – Gilagamesh.” World Civilizations. Washington State University. Updated 6, July 1999. Tablets 1, 2, 5. 16 February, 2005. <http://www.wsu.edu/~dee/MESO/GILG.HTM>

* Jager, Bernd. “Eating as natural event and as intersubjective phenomenon: Towards a phenomenology of eating." ''Journal of Phenomenological Psychology.'' Spring 1999, Vol. 30 Issue 1: 66-118. EBSCOhost. GALILEO. 6 Feb. 2005 <http://www.galileo.usg.edu/>.

* Lewis, Thomas M. N. and Madeline Kneberg. “Tribes that Slumber Indians of the Tennessee Region.” Knoxville, Tennessee: The University of Tennessee Press,tenth printing (1994).

* Lishtar. “Gilagamesh and Enkidu – The Soul Siblings.” Gateways to Babylon. Updated 26 August, 1999. 16 February, 2005. <http://www.gatewaystobabylon.com/gods/partnerships/gilgaenk1.html>.

* Mooney, James. ''History, Myths, and Sacred Formulas of the Cherokees''. Asheville, North Carolina, 1992.

* Sahibzada, Mehnaz. “The Symbolism of the Number Seven in Islamic Culture and Rituals.” 15 Feb. 2005 http://www.wadsworth.com/religion_d/special_features/symbols/islamic.html

* ''The Norton Anthology of World Masterpieces''. 7th ed., New York: W. W. Norton & Company, 1998.

The Metamorphoses Summary:Pygmalion

2006-06-28T00:02:41Z

Kroyal: questions added

[[Image:Pygmalion-and-Galatea.jpg|thumb|Pygmalian and Galatea]]

Pygmalion is a sculptor from Cyprus. Pygmalion sees the shamefulness and evilness of women from Cyprus and decides to remain a bachelor. He, therefore, carves a sculpture from ivory of the ideal woman, lovelier than any real woman could be. The ivory girl is so alluring that Pygmalion falls deeply in love, bestowing his ivory girl with trinkets of admiration.

Pygmalion attends [[Venus]]’ festival to honor the goddess. At the festival, he prays to Venus for a wife like his ivory girl. Venus has compassion for Pygmalion’s love of the sculpture and grants his wish. When Pygmalion returns home, he kisses his beloved sculpture wishing she were alive and notices the sculpture’s ivory is becoming supple like human flesh. At first he thinks this is wishful thinking. As Pygmalion caresses his ivory girl, the sculpture blossoms to life under his probing touch. Pygmalion’s ivory sculpture changes into a flesh-and-blood girl, who he promptly marries and impregnates. They call their child Paphos, which later becomes another name for Cyprus.

==Work Cited==

Ovid.'' Pygmalion. The Norton Anthology of World Masterpieces.'' Ed. Lawall, Sarah and Mack, Maynard. 7th. NY: W.W. Norton & Co., Inc., 1999. 927-928.

==Additional Resources==

[http://www.pantheon.org/articles/p/pygmalion.html Pygmalion]
==Questions for Consideration==
1. Why carve the lady out of ivory?

2. Why is Pygmalion feared by the gods?

3. Why does the ivory lady accept Pygmalion?

4. How tall do you think the ivory lady was?

The Metamorphoses Summary:Iphis and Ianthe

2006-06-27T23:58:02Z

Kroyal: /* Questions for Consideration */

[[Image:Iphis and Ianthe.gif]]

Ligdus prayed that his wife would have a painless childbirth, and he wanted her to have a son. Ligdus’ wife, Telethusa did not agree with her husband. Isis came to Telethusa and told her not to worry, she would comfort her. The child was born and it was a girl. Telethusa told Ligdus it was a boy, so he named him Iphis. As Iphis grew up Ligdus wanted him to marry Ianthe, but Iphis knew that she herself was a girl. She still had feelings for Ianthe, because she was raised like a boy. Telethusa prayed to the gods once again. Iphis transformed into a boy, and he and Ianthe were married.

==Iphis==

Iphis was the daughter of Ligdus and Telethusa. From the day she was born her identity is hidden from the public and her father. Iphis has the the gender and sexuality of a male, but her sex is female. After thirteen years, her father finds Iphis a bride named Ianthe.
Iphis and Telethusa pray to the goddess Isis, Isis then changes Iphis into a boy.

==Work Cited==

Athena, Ailia. "Iphis." ''Women in Greek Myths''. 1 June 2006. HostMySite.com. 27 June 2006. <http://www.paleothea.com/HumansF-M.html>

==Questions for Consideration==
1. Why is Iphis sex changed opposed to Ianthe?

2. Why didn't anyone notice Iphis was a girl?

3. Why was beastiality more acceptable than homesexuality?

4. Why would a father kill their child just because it was a girl?

The Metamorphoses Summary:Iphis and Ianthe

2006-06-27T23:55:10Z

Kroyal: added questions

The Metamorphoses Summary:Iphis and Ianthe

2006-06-27T23:53:54Z

Kroyal: /* Iphis */

The Metamorphoses Summary:Iphis and Ianthe

2006-06-27T23:30:38Z

Kroyal: added iphis

The Metamorphoses Summary:Io and Jove

2006-06-27T23:20:10Z

Kroyal: /* Questions */

[[Image:Io and Jove.jpeg]]

Jove caught sight of Inachus’ daughter Io. He told her he was a god and her guardian. He raped Io in a heavy fog. Juno (Saturn’s daughter) was the wife of Jove. She started to look for Jove, and he knew it so he changed Io to a white heifer. Jove gave the heifer to Juno and she entrusted it with Argus (man of one hundred eyes). He only slept with two of these eyes shut at anytime. Io told her father by drawing words in the sand that she had been turned into a cow. Inachus was outraged. Jove instructs his son Mercury to murder Argus. Mercury plays some reeds to put Argus to sleep. Once he is asleep, Mercury proceeds to murder him. Juno is upset and begins to torture the heifer. Jove pleads to his wife to leave her alone and she will never bother her again. Then Io is turned back into her beautiful self and it was believed she gave birth to Jove’s son, Epaphus.

==Characters==
* [[Io]]
* [[Jove]]
* [[Juno]]
==Questions==
1. Why was Io turned into a heifer?

2. Why did Juno take her anger out Io, when she knew Jove was to blame?

3.What was the significance of Jove's cloud?

4. Why is Io transformed into a goddess?

The Metamorphoses Summary:Io and Jove

2006-06-27T23:15:01Z

Kroyal: added questions

Io

2006-06-27T23:09:33Z

Kroyal: summary of Io

Io was the daughter of Inachus, river god. She meets the god Jove, and Jove is attracted to Io. Jove tells Io that he is a god and she has nothing to worry about. Io runs from Jove, she is attacked and raped. Jove turns Io into a white heifer. Io is imprisoned under the watch of Argus. Io cannot speak to others, so one day at the river with her father she spells out the tragic event that has occured. Io is finally turned back into her human form when Jove pleas to Juno let her go. Io is now a celebrated goddess known as Isis.

Works Cited:

Parada,Carlos. "Io." ''Greek Mythology Link''. 1997. Greek Mythology Link. 27 June 2006. <http://homepage.mac.com/cparada/GML/Io.html>

The Metamorphoses Summary:Io and Jove

2006-06-27T22:44:01Z

Kroyal: added characters

Daphne

2006-06-27T22:31:41Z

Kroyal: summary of daphne

Daphne was the daughter of Peneus, a river god. Daphne was Apollo’s first love, brought by a shot of Cupid’s arrow. Apollo loved Daphne, but she did not anything to do with him because she was also hit by an arrow with the reverse effect of love. One day, Apollo begins to chase down the nymph, desperate for her love. She ran from Apollo until she grew tiresome, and knew it was a matter of minutes until he would catch her. Daphne called out to her father for help. Peneus transformed his daughter into a laurel tree. Suddenly her legs took root, and her skin began to turn into bark.
Apollo finally reaches the laurel tree, and he still acts as if the tree is Daphne. He claimed the tree to be his special tree. The laurel tree is a symbol of the god Apollo.

Works Cited:

Gill, N. "Apollo and Daphne." ''Classical History''. 2002. The New York Times Company. 27 June 2006. <http://ancienthistory.about.com/library/bl/bl_apollodaphne.htm>

The Metamorphoses Summary:Apollo and Daphne

2006-06-27T21:45:28Z

Kroyal: addrd apollo and daphne

[[Image:Daphne_apollo.jpg|thumb|Apollo and Daphne]]Phoebus Apollo seeks after Daphne a nymph the daughter of Peneus. An arrow that Cupid shot struck Apollo and made him fall in love, and the arrow that makes one reject struck Daphne. She wants to stay a virgin and unmarried. Cupid did this through his wrath at Apollo, because Apollo was criticizing the way he carried his bow and bragged about how he could do a better job. Apollo is determined to get Daphne to love him so they begin a chase throughout the woods. Daphne starts to get tired and she prays to her father to help her. She is then transformed into a laurel tree. Apollo says that he will love the tree forever.

[[Category:World Literature]]

Works Cited

Ovid. Apolo and Daphne. The Norton Anthology of World Masterpieces. Ed. Lawall, Sarah and Mack, Maynard. 7th. NY: W.W. Norton & Co., Inc., 1999. 899-902.
==Characters==
* [[Apollo]]
* [[Daphne]]
* [[Cupid]]

Cupid

2006-06-27T21:43:41Z

Kroyal: added image of cupid

Cupid, was the god of love. The name Cupid is a variation on meanings love and meaning. Cupid was believed to be the son of Venus, the goddess of love. The ancient Romans often thought Cupid as winged child or baby who carried a bow and bag of arrows. Ovid seemed to portrayed Cupid as a willful and capricious child in many of his poems from the Amores and the Art of Love. In the story of Apollo and Daphne, Cupid strikes Daphne and Apollo with two of his arrows. One arrow of Cupid's arrows are blunt and rejects, the other is sharp and makes the person hit fall in love with another. Daphne was hit by the arrow that rejects and Apollo was hit by the arrow that makes him fall in love with Daphne. Cupid is also associated with Valentine's Day.

Image of Cupid
[[http://www.liechtensteinmuseum.at/de/pages/showImage.asp?src=/assets/images/8D227.jpg&width=440]]

Works Cited:

Bulfinch, Thomas. "Apollo and Daphne." ''Ancient/Classical History''. 2006. The New York Times. 26 June 2006. <http://ancienthistory.about.com/library/bl/bl_apollodaphne.htm>

"Cupid in Roman Mythology." ''Mythography''. 2006. Loggia. 26 June 2006. <http://www.loggia.com/myth/cupid.html>

The Metamorphoses Summary:Apollo and Daphne

2006-06-27T21:39:54Z

Kroyal: delete pic of cupid

The Metamorphoses Summary:Apollo and Daphne

2006-06-27T21:38:50Z

Kroyal: pic of cupid

Cupid

2006-06-27T02:49:14Z

Kroyal:

Cupid, was the god of love. The name Cupid is a variation on meanings love and meaning. Cupid was believed to be the son of Venus, the goddess of love. The ancient Romans often thought Cupid as winged child or baby who carried a bow and bag of arrows. Ovid seemed to portrayed Cupid as a willful and capricious child in many of his poems from the Amores and the Art of Love. In the story of Apollo and Daphne, Cupid strikes Daphne and Apollo with two of his arrows. One arrow of Cupid's arrows are blunt and rejects, the other is sharp and makes the person hit fall in love with another. Daphne was hit by the arrow that rejects and Apollo was hit by the arrow that makes him fall in love with Daphne. Cupid is also associated with Valentine's Day.

Works Cited:

Bulfinch, Thomas. "Apollo and Daphne." ''Ancient/Classical History''. 2006. The New York Times. 26 June 2006. <http://ancienthistory.about.com/library/bl/bl_apollodaphne.htm>

"Cupid in Roman Mythology." ''Mythography''. 2006. Loggia. 26 June 2006. <http://www.loggia.com/myth/cupid.html>

Cupid

2006-06-27T02:47:58Z

Kroyal: other work cited

Cupid, was the god of love. The name Cupid is a variation on meanings love and meaning. Cupid was believed to be the son of Venus, the goddess of love. The ancient Romans often thought Cupid as winged child or baby who carried a bow and bag of arrows. Ovid seemed to portrayed Cupid as a willful and capricious child in many of his poems from the Amores and the Art of Love. In the story of Apollo and Daphne, Cupid strikes Daphne and Apollo with two of his arrows. One arrow of Cupid's arrows are blunt and rejects, the other is sharp and makes the person hit fall in love with another. Daphne was hit by the arrow that rejects and Apollo was hit by the arrow that makes him fall in love with Daphne. Cupid is also associated with Valentine's Day.

Works Cited:

Bulfinch, Thomas. "Apollo and Daphne." ''Ancient/Classical History''. 2006. The New York Times. 26 June 2006. <http://ancienthistory.about.com/library/bl/bl_apollodaphne.htm>

"Cupid in Roman Mythology." ''Mythography.'' 2006. Loggia. 26 June 2006. <http://www.loggia.com/myth/cupid.html>

Cupid

2006-06-27T02:44:19Z

Kroyal: summary of cupid

Cupid, was the god of love. The name Cupid is a variation on meanings love and meaning. Cupid was believed to be the son of Venus, the goddess of love. The ancient Romans often thought Cupid as winged child or baby who carried a bow and bag of arrows. Ovid seemed to portrayed Cupid as a willful and capricious child in many of his poems from the Amores and the Art of Love. In the story of Apollo and Daphne, Cupid strikes Daphne and Apollo with two of his arrows. One arrow of Cupid's arrows are blunt and rejects, the other is sharp and makes the person hit fall in love with another. Daphne was hit by the arrow that rejects and Apollo was hit by the arrow that makes him fall in love with Daphne. Cupid is also associated with Valentine's Day.

Works Cited:

Bulfinch, Thomas. "Apollo and Daphne." ''Ancient/Classical History''. 2006. The New York Times. 26 June 2006. <http://ancienthistory.about.com/library/bl/bl_apollodaphne.htm>

The Metamorphoses Summary:Apollo and Daphne

2006-06-27T02:22:09Z

Kroyal: /* Cupid */

The Metamorphoses Summary:Apollo and Daphne

2006-06-27T02:20:46Z

Kroyal: added cupid

Achelous

2006-06-26T01:02:22Z

Kroyal: summary of achelous

Achelous, is the ruler of all rivers. Achelous was also the father of the Sirens. The Sirens appeared in the Iliad when Odyssey was making his voyage back home. He was son of Oceanus and Tethys. Achelous has the power to appear as a bull, a serpent, or a bullheaded man.

Work Cited:

Lindemans, Micha. "Achelous." ''Encyclopedia Mythica.'' 03 March 1997. MMVI Encyclopedia Mythica. 25 June 2006. <http://pantheon.org/articles/a/achelous.html>

The Iliad

2006-06-26T00:51:56Z

Kroyal: /* The Gods */

The ''Iliad'' (a song about Ilium, or Troy) along with its companion [[Epic Poetry|epic]] the [[Odyssey]] form the foundation of ancient Greek culture and address the extremes of human experience through war and peace. Both [[Epic Poetry|epic]] are primary, or oral, [[Epic Poetry|epic]] that draw on an enormous wealth of cultural stories in unified structures that we attribute to the poet [[Homer]], in eighth century B.C.E. The [[Epic Poetry|epic]] are written in an unsentimental style: the ''Iliad'' depicts the ambivalence of war in meticulously accurate details. Both the nightmare of war and its excitement find expression in the ''Iliad'', just as the [[Odyssey]]’s pages quest for a home, or a peace that seems hard-won after the devastation of war.

==Themes==
===The Epic Theme===
As the narrator states first thing: the subject of the ''Iliad'' is the rage of [[Achilles]] and the consequences of that rage for both the Achaeans and the Trojans. War effects not only the men who fight the battles, but also the women and children whose lives are then shaped by its outcome. War represents the worst and, ironically, the best of humanity: ugly brutality and terrible beauty. We both pity with [[Hector]] and sympathize with [[Achilles]]; neither side of the war holds all of our sentiments. The final outcome of the war, then, becomes truly tragic: only one culture can continue while the other is destroyed or enslaved.

The brutality of [[Achilles]] and its consequences are most evident in Book XXII of the ''Iliad''. [[Achilles]]’ rage blinds him to anything but the death of [[Hector]], the Trojan champion that kills [[Patroclus]]. Replete with [[Epic Poetry|epic]] [[simile|similes]] of the hunt, book twenty-two illustrates [[Hector]]’s own reluctance to do what he sees as his duty to face [[Achilles]], yet thinks only of himself and what his people might think if he doesn’t face the Greek killing machine (cf. ll. 108-156). [[Hector]]’s resolve is soon shaken as he sees [[Achilles]] closing, bloody rage the only thing that [[Achilles]] sees. [[Hector]] flees, but is soon tricked by [[Athena]] into stopping to face [[Achilles]], perhaps a commentary on [[Hector]]’s need for companionship and [[Achilles]]’ desire for only personal vengeance and renown. [[Hector]] is mercilessly murdered in front of Troy’s walls, like a fawn at the jaws of a lion.

The death of [[Hector]], then, is given a final cultural context from [[Hector]]’s widow [[Andromache]]. She now sees the demise of Troy, but personally she sees no future for their son [[Astyanax]]. The death of the father, then, is a weighty metaphor for the Trojans: the order that they secured will soon be rendered useless by the barbarity of war; the father’s death leads to the destruction of social order. This theme will be taken up in the [[Odyssey]] as well: what is the responsibility of the son for maintaining order in the absence or death of the father? As [[Andromache]] sees no future for [[Astyanax]], life does continue even after the carnage of war, yet a new order is imposed on the losers — those who escape death. This theme of continuity is also addressed by [[Virgil]] in his [[Aeneid]].

Is war, then, a necessary component of human life? Just because it has been historically up until this point, are we to be like [[Achilles]] who could not hear reason through his bloody thoughts: “No truce / till one or the other falls and gluts with blood” (XXII.313-14)? When do we decide that war is better than order?

===Consequences of Rage===

== Summary ==
In book one of the ''Iliad'', we discover that because of [[Agamemnon]]’s refusal to relinquish Chryseis, [[Apollo]] has rained a plague upon the Achaean forces. Because he is eventually challenged by [[Achilles]] — who represents the wishes of the rest of the men — [[Agamemnon]] decides to claim Achilles’ prize (a girl named Briseis) to reassert his authority and put Achilles in his place for his challenge. Achilles shows cunning and restraint — qualities that are usually associated with [[Odysseus]] — in his argument with [[Agamemnon]], while the latter rages and rails like a wounded child. Yet, when [[Agamemnon]]’s men take Briseis, [[Achilles]], also child-like, begins to pout by his ships, cries to his mother, and refuses to play the war game anymore. This final decision precipitates the death of many Achaeans, including Achilles’ friend [[Patroclus]]. Achilles’ resulting rage ends with the death of [[Hector]] in book twenty-two, and Achilles’ own apocryphal death under the bow of [[Paris]] before the war’s end. See more in [[The Iliad Summary]].

== Characters ==
The ''Iliad''’s participants are the nobility of both cultures, or the ''aristoi'': “the best people.” They are the hereditary holders of wealth and power, and their decisions effect all of the culture. For example, [[Agamemnon]]’s decision to infuriate [[Achilles]] at the outset of the ''Iliad'' has lasting effects on the Greek warriors during the last weeks of the Trojan War. Like most [[Epic Poetry|epic]], of which the ''Iliad'' is really the definitive example, the action begins [[in medias res]], a few weeks before the end of a ten-year campaign, with all of the [[Epic Poetry|epic]]’s traditional accouterments. The ''Iliad'' poses questions, as will the [[Odyssey]], about the nature of political order and what humans must do to maintain that vision and structure. The initial contention in the ''Iliad'' is between the Greek champion [[Achilles]] and the Greek commander [[Agamemnon]]. Who has the stronger claim to right: [[Agamemnon]] who has the hereditary position, or [[Achilles]], the one with merit? Ultimately does it matter? When swords are drawn, reason becomes irrelevant.

=== Achaeans ===
* [[Achilles]]
* [[Agamemnon]]
* [[Ajax]]
* [[Menaleus]]
* [[Nestor]]
* [[Odysseus]]
* [[Patroclus]]

=== Trojans ===
* [[Hector]]
* [[Andromache]]
* [[Hecuba]]
* [[Helen]]
* [[Paris]]
* [[Priam]]

=== The Gods ===
* [[Apollo]]
* [[Athena]]
* [[Hera]]
* [[Poseidon]]
* [[Thetis]]
* [[Zeus]]
* [[The Humaness of Iliad's Gods]]
* [[Achelous]]

== Internal Links ==
* [[Homer]]
* [[The Iliad Summary]]

== External Links ==

* [http://library.thinkquest.org/19300/data/homer.htm Homer’s Iliad and Odyssey]
* [http://earthshine.org/node/109 The Iliad: Rage and War]
* [http://earthshine.org/node/110 Hector: Family Man, but Hero First]
* [http://earthshine.org/node/394 Fighting Beyond Their Fates]
* [http://earthshine.org/node/111 Friendship and Two Epics]

== Suggested Reading ==
== Works Cited ==

* Ceram, C.W. ''Gods, Graves, and Scholars''. New York: Alfred A. knopf 1967.

* Graves, Robert. ''Greek Mythology''. London: Penguin Books 1981.

* Grimal, Pierre. ''Larousse World Mythology''. New Jersey: Chartwheel Books Inc. 1973.

* Willcock, Malcolm M. ''A Companion to the Iliad''. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press 1976.

----
[[Category:World Literature]]

Epic of Gilgamesh/Ishtar

2006-06-24T22:03:51Z

Kroyal: summay of ishtar

Ishtar was the Great Mother, the goddess of fertility and love. On the other hand, her character had destructive characteristics; she was considered, especially by the Assyrians, a goddess of hunting and war and was depicted with sword, bow, and quiver of arrows. Among the Babylonians, Ishtar was distinctly the mother goddess and was portrayed either naked and with prominent breasts or as a mother with a child at her breast. Ishtar is described as an evil, heartless, women who destroyed her mates and lovers. She brought destruction to Tammuz, the farm god.

In the epic of Gilgamesh, she tried to make Gilgamesh her husband, but Gilgamesh refused telling her how she treated her last lovers. Ishtar was angered by Gilgamesh's words, so she sent the Bull of Heaven down to destroy Gilgamesh. After Gilgamesh destroyed the beast she sents a diease to kill his counterpart Enkidu.

Works Cited:

"The Lightbringer." ''The Goddess Ishtar''. 24 January 1998. Roibin. 23 June 2006. <http://inanna.virtualave.net/ishtar.html>

Epic of Gilgamesh

2006-06-24T21:44:03Z

Kroyal: added ishtar

[[Image:Gilgamesh.jpg|thumb|Gilgamesh]] While composed nearly five thousand years ago (2500-1500 BCE), ''Gilgamesh'' seems very as contemporary in its thematic concerns as it is alien in many of its cultural practices. Many of these themes emerge from a lost mythological tradition and a culture that is equally non-extant, the bonds of friendship, fear of death, and the quest for worldly renown still strike chords with us even in the twenty-first century.

==Characters==
* [[Gilgamesh]]
* [[Enkidu]]
* [[Anu]]
* [[Ishtar]]

== Historical Context ==

''Gilgamesh'' is a primary epic, composed over a thousand years by cultural stories of the legendary king, Gilgamesh, who is thought to have historically ruled Uruk circa 2700 BCE. The oral stories were probably assembled by a poet and cast into the narrative form of the epic between 2000 and 1600 BCE and finally written on clay tablets in cuneiform during the reign of Assurbanipol in 668-627 BCE.

== Gilgamesh as Epic ==

Can ''Gilgamesh'' be called an Epic? Yes and No.

No, because the term epic is usually applied to exceptionally long poems that are narrated by someone else. ''Gilgamesh'' has three entries that one may consider to be poems. On page 34 ''Gilgamesh'' cries out to the counsellors of Uruk in what I would call a short prayer. On page 43 Ea speaks to Enlil about his misdeeds, the words that are indented have the characteristics of an epic poem. Ea words center on Enlil whose deeds can control the fate of human mankind.

Then again yes, ''Gilgamesh'' could be called a Primary Epic. The story of Gilgamesh has several episodes that are legendary. The first sentence of the story states, "''Gilgamesh'' is a poem of unparalleled antiquity, the first great heroic narrative of world literature" (Norton). A "[[Epic_Poetry#Primary_Epic|primary epic]]" "focuses on the personal concept of heroism, and the self-fulfillment and identity of the individual hero." Gilgamesh was definitely out for self-fulfillment. The ''Epic of Gilgamesh'' contains everything we can expect from a great epic literature. It portrays fantastic geographies, exotic characters, exhausting quests, heroic battles with monsters, supernatural beings and natural forces. Most important of all, it is an outstanding story of a great epic hero who is compelled to meet his destiny and who rises to every challenge with courage and determination.

== The Role of Enkidu ==
When the god Anu heard the city of Uruk lamenting the cruelty of their king, he responded by demanding of the goddess of creation: “You made him, O Aruru, now create his equal; let it be as like him as his own reflection, his second self, stormy heart for stormy heart” (19). Thus [[Enkidu]] was created to counterbalance the despotic Gilgamesh: whereas Gilgamesh was two thirds god and one third man, Enkidu was two thirds beast and one third man. Enkidu also acts as a reflection to Gilgamesh in that both must learn what it means to be human. In order to do this, each must distance himself from his animal or godly instincts. As for Enkidu, Jager states that “the wild man who is about to enter the human city must…forego living in a state of absolute unity with a savage and untamed nature.” Enkidu must break the bond between himself and the wilderness in order to be cultured and civilized. Similarly, Jager notes that “The king seeking to humanly inhabit his realm must forego treating that realm as a mere physical extension of himself to which he has completely unrestricted access.” Gilgamesh, like a weaning child, must recognize the break between himself as a ruler and the kingdom he reigns over. Both must learn how to properly inhabit the human realm before they can be considered human.

== Thematic Concerns ==

The [[Epic Poetry | epic]] takes as its primary concern Gilgamesh’s wisdom that he acquires during his journeys and the monuments that he constructs upon his return. Like the Homeric epics, Gilgamesh begins ''in medias res'' during the rule of a wild king, two-thirds god and one-third man. While Gilgamesh is strong and an obvious stud — at least in his own mind, his is cruel and naive, needing to discover what it means to be human if he is to become a good ruler and father.

=== Bonds of Friendship ===

His first lesson is one of friendship through the wild man Enkidu, more of an animal than man. Like all good, lasting friendships, Gilgamesh and Enkidu first attempt to kill each other when the latter comes to Uruk. Fortunately, they do not, yet Gilgamesh does get the slight upper-hand, and they become great friends. Indeed, while there is an implicit suggestion of Gilgamesh’s superiority over Enkidu, something akin most friendships, there is one who is dominant, choosing adventures, making decisions, and directing the ultimate course of the friendship. Gilgamesh, since he is the [[heroic ideal | epic hero]], seems to take this role, perhaps also suggesting the superiority of the cultured and civilized to the animal, or natural. This motif becomes even more apparent in their first adventure.

Strong bonds are usually formed when two people have a common goal, ideal, or interest. As stated in the epic, the gods created Enkidu to try to soften Gilgamesh-make him kinder and gentler. It was as if Homer wanted Gilgamesh to be perceived to be a bad little boy and provide an alter-ego to help Gilgamesh mature. People come in and out of one’s life for a purpose--some to be there for a long time and some for just a moment. Some are there to provide a particular purpose--maybe to teach a certain life’s lesson--and some to change lives forever--maybe a child or a teacher. Their time in one’s life may or may not accomplish its purpose because some are blinded by selfish desires. For Enkidu, his time with Gilgamesh was relatively short, but it was a relationship that Gilgamesh would never forget and which would affect him the rest of his own life. Even though their first meeting was stressful, they became best friends. Early in his existence, Enkidu had lost his physical strength through the trickery of sex with an encounter with a harlot. “It was Gilgamesh that sent a priestess to teach Enkidu the power of civilization, whereas by meeting Enkidu Gilgamesh felt for the first time the need to share and grow, it was through their friendship that Gilgamesh becomes less self-absorbed and most certainly, less lonely (Lishtar).” “Shamhat meets Enkidu at the watering-hole where all the wild animals gather; she offers herself to him and he submits, instantly losing his strength and wildness, but he gains understanding and knowledge. He laments for his lost state (Hooker, Tablet 1)”. Homer seemed to be presenting Enkidu in a more animalistic manner at first and then shows him becoming more human.

When Enkidu first came into the city, Gilgamesh, though not the groom, was about to go in and ravish a new bride. “Enkidu stands in front of the door of the marital chamber and blocks Gilgamesh's way. They fight furiously until Gilgamesh wins the upper hand; Enkidu concedes Gilgamesh's superiority and the two embrace and become devoted friends (Hooker, Tablet 2)”. Some believe that Gilgamesh and Enkidu were lovers, but Lishtar noted that, “…it is not implied in the text that Gilgamesh and Enkidu were lovers in the physical sense. They were though the best friends possible in all worlds, and this is a grace beyond measure (Lishtar)”. This is simply a tale, but ”the modern ideas and interpretations have been applied to it. This is not all bad because it helps relate to this ancient text, but when it comes down to it, it is not likely that this story is about sexuality (''Gilgamesh'').” Many friendships that start off with turmoil, wind up being the closest. Their friendship was genuine. Enkidu does seem to enjoy the camaraderie that he shares with Gilgamesh and when they enter the forest to cut down the cedar tress, he is the one who stands up to Humbaba, the great demon. “Enkidu shouts at Humbaba that the two of them are much stronger than the demon (Hooker, Tablet 5)”. “This is the real meaning of the bond between Enkidu and Gilgamesh, ideal self and bright shadow that stands by wherever we are (Lishtar).” This also occurs in one’s friendships today. One person seems to relish in the glory and the other may be just along for the ride or be the one who gets things done behind the scenes--not everyone wants to be king!

=== Quest for Worldly Renown ===

Now that we are friends, we have to party. Enkidu soon gets bored in Uruk — “I am oppressed by idleness” (23) — and Gilgamesh suggests they go get medieval of some evil: Humbaba. This feat will also prove Gilgamesh a real hero by allowing stories to be told about his great feats of manhood:

: I will set up my name in the place where the names of famous men are written, and where no man’s name is written yet I will raise a monument to the gods.

[[Image:Grendel.jpg|thumb|Humbaba]] While Humbaba lives in the Country of the Living, seemingly quite far from Uruk, and is apparently not an immediate threat to Gilgamesh’s people, this endeavor might seem a bit dubious. Perhaps this is a commentary on what men will do when they are bored: let’s go kill something. When we are at peace, we long for war? Humbaba might also represent a “holdfast,” something that while alive or existing — whether an idea or an actual threat — restricts a culture from developing beyond a certain point. Many such holdfasts pop up in western literature, cf. the dragon in Beowulf for one.

While Gilgamesh and Enkidu are successful in killing Humbaba — through episodes of fainting and friendly gibes — its death suggests more of an ambiguity in their success, as if something precious has been slain all for the pride of man (and I do mean man, here). Notice that when Humbaba is killed, the heroes begin cutting down trees: “They attacked the cedars . . . [and] cleared their roots as far as the banks of the Euphrates” (30). Like Enkidu’s education through the wiles of the harlot, this victory suggests that while the heroes accomplished their great victory, something is irrevocably lost because of their endeavor. Through the harlot, Enkidu forever loses his innocence, but what is lost in the killing of Humbaba is a bit more ambiguous. Perhaps this is an ecological statement about clearing rain forests millennia before we knew what effect that practice would have.

The ambiguity continues in the gods’ reaction to the death of Humbaba and the felling of the cedars: Enkidu must die. OK, maybe it has more to do with Gilgamesh’s arrogant dismissal of Ishtar, but regardless, the Bull of Heaven is sent to punish the heroes and Uruk. Even though the bull is defeated, Enkidu must die which precipitates Gilgamesh’s search for immortality — an escape from death. Notice that while Enkidu lays dying that he curses the city (civilization), the harlot (women that led to the destruction of his innocence), and the trapper (who precipitated the education of Enkidu). Enkidu’s curses further call into question the necessity of civilization and heroic quests: perhaps fame is not worth death.

=== Humbaba ===

"Humbaba whose name is 'Hugeness,' a ferocious giant. Enlil has appointed Humbaba to guard the forest and has armed him in sevenfold terrors, terrible to all flesh is Humbaba. When he roars it is like the torrent of the storm, his breath is like fire, and his jaws are death itself. He guards the cedars so well that when the wild heifer stirs in the forest, though she is sixty leagues distant, he hears her. Humbaba is a great warrior, a battering ram. Humbaba, the watchman of the forest never sleeps." (The Norton Anthology, 23)

Humbaba was also know as Huwawa. Humbaba is a monster in the epic of Gilgamesh who guards the cedar forest in the Lebanon mountains. He is a giant being and is sometimes shown with lion's claws, long hair, and a monstrous, hairy face. Humbaba is killed by the hero Gilgamesh and his friend Enkidu who journey to the forest to cut down cedar trees. (http://www.mesopotamia.co.uk/gods/explore/humbaba.html, 2005)

=== Escape from Death ===

After Enkidu’s death, Gilgamesh rips his clothes from his body and dons animal skins, symbolic of his repudiation of civilization and renown — that which caused the death of his friend. Gilgamesh’s subsequent journey is a psychological descent into his own psyche to discover his own meaning in a life that must end in death. His epic journey is pretty pathetic as far as epic journeys go: full of tantrums and failed tasks, Gilgamesh seems to return to Uruk empty-handed. Yet, he brings the story of his travel and carves it on the bricks that make up the foundation of Uruk, suggesting that civilization is ultimately built on stories: the written text is the key to progress, friendship, and immortality. Gilgamesh, then, becomes a scapegoat: he journeyed to meet Utnapishtim so his people did not have to. Though his journeys proved ostensibly unsuccessful, he returned humanized, ready to accept his place in the world and finally death when it would come.

''Gilgamesh'' leaves us with its moral: Do not abuse power, “deal justly with your servants in the palace, deal justly before the face of the Sun” (46). ''Gilgamesh'' is both “the darkness and the light of mankind” in that he brought suffering, but ultimately brought life to his people in the form of the story. What directions for life are contained within the epic? How many of these myths do we still live with today? These stories represent the good and the bad of humanity. What do we ultimately think of the stories, myths, codes for life that ''Gilgamesh'' ultimately passes on?

== Importance of Food and Drink ==

When we are first introduced to Enkindu, it is when “he was innocent of mankind, he knew nothing of the cultivated land” (19). He also “ate grass in the hills with the gazelle and lurked with wild beasts at the water-holes” (19). Though he is biologically human, he lives like a wild animal. One aspect of his animalism is his eating habits. The food we eat, the ways it is prepared and consumed, and the rituals of hospitality are all forms of culture and civilization. In order for Enkindu to learn to be human, he must learn to eat as one. When the shepherds originally present food to him the text states that, “Enkindu could only suck the milk of wild animals. He fumbled and gaped, at a loss what to do or how he should eat the bread and drink the strong wine” (22). Because he only knows how to eat as an animal, he is an animal.

Immediately after the harlot explains to him the way of human eating, and he consumes the bread and wine like a man, “He rubbed down the matted hair of his body and anointed himself with oil. Enkindu had become a man” (22). His new discovery of human eating has led to his humanization. According to Jager, Enkindu’s “exodus from an older and more primitive and confluent world and his entrance into a human cosmos is marked by a distinctly different way of…eating and drinking.” His new understanding of how humans prepare and eat food has granted him the capacity to act as a man, and therefore be admitted into human civilization. Jager also explains that “Fully human eating begins by domesticating natural grasses, roots and berries and by transforming them into agricultural crops.” Farming shows human advancement and technology. A refined taste for food and drink and an understanding of cultivation reflects cultural appreciation. Now that Enkindu can properly eat human food, he can acknowledge the society which produces it.

== Attitudes Toward Women ==

Gilgamesh's view of women is that of a male chauvinist (according to today’s standards). Not only is he a male chauvinist, but he "is the epitome of a bad ruler: arrogant, oppressive, and brutal." (The Norton Anthology, 17)"His lust leaves no virgin to her lover, neither the warrior's daughter nor the wife of the noble; yet this is the shepherd of the city, wise, comely, and resolute." (The Norton Anthology, 19) The men of Uruk were not happy with his behavior. Even noble Enkidu is upset at the news that Gilgamesh was to take a bride’s virginity before her marriage to her groom.

When Ishtar see Gilgamesh's great beauty she exclaims in glory, "Come to me ''Gilgamesh'', and be my bridegroom; grant me seed of you body, let me be your bride and you shall be my husband."(The Norton Anthology, 30) “She tried to make Gilgamesh her husband, but he refused her and reminded her of her former lovers, whom she mercilessly killed or left injured.” (Lindemans, Micha F. \ “Ishtar” \ www.pantheon.org \ July 25, 2004) He states that he doesn’t just want to be another piece of meat in her escapades of having sex with many men and leaving them. So he declines.

Gilgamesh is a control freak and if he were to marry Ishtar, he would lose that control. Also, Gilgamesh loves virgins and not loose women. This is seen in the opening statments listed above.

As we look at attitudes toward women, we cannot just look at Gilgamesh as an individual but at the whole story. The trapper's son was scared of Enkidu at first. The trapper's son went to Gilgamesh and got a harlot, (loose woman), to take to the watering hole to seduce Enkidu so his peers, the animals, would repel against him.

To humanize Enkidu, the harlot, was sent to seduce him. Enkidu, who ran with the animals and was basically one of them, came upon the harlot at the drinking hole where she exposed her breasts, got naked with him and had sex with him for six days and seven nights. After this, Enkidu had his fill and returned to be with the animals that rejected him and ran off. We hear of Enkidu being weak legged after his sexual escapades and unable to keep up with the animals. (The Norton Anthology, 20)

Women were looked at basically as sexual elements from the beginning of this tale and this has continued throughout time. So, is Gilgamesh really as bad as he was made out to be or is he just the same as some of the men in today's society? Women throughout modern day have used sex to get what they want. This is just an example of how women even back then used sex to get what they desired even if it was for someone else.

== Archetypes in Gilgamesh ==
An archetype in ''Gilgamesh'' was the number seven. The author used this archetype, very deliberately. After taking a closer look at this literary work it was discovered the number seven was used thirty-seven times. (''Norton Anthology'', 18-47) By taking a collaborative view of literary works throughout history it is revealed the continued use of the number seven. The number seven was used 700 times in ''The Bible'' (Harris) and twenty-five times in ''The Qu’ran'' (Sahibzada). There is no mistake about the author’s reference to this particular number based upon its cultural and religious significance. It has become evident the number seven held a sacred or significant meaning. But to better understand the significance of the continued reference to a particular number, one would have to take a closer look at the historical implications.

“Most cultures of the world hold certain numbers to be especially significant, even symbolic, and this is reflected in their religions. In the Abrahamic traditions, which originate in the Middle East, the number seven is of particular importance. Some of its significance stems from the ancient Sumerian and Babylonian civilizations, which identified seven planets and framed seven days of the week around them. Very early among Middle Eastern peoples, seven became known as a "perfect" number, symbolic of completeness and goodness.” (Sahibzada).

It is believed the origin of the number seven was established by the planets that were transformed into deities. The ancient Egyptians had seven original gods; the Phoenicians seven Kabiris; the Persians seven sacred horses of Mithra with seven gates, seven alters, and seven mysteries; the Parsees seven angels opposed by seven demons, seven celestial abodes paralleled by seven lower regions. The seven gods were often represented as one seven-headed deity. The whole heaven was subjected to seven planets; hence, in nearly all the religious systems we find seven heavens. The number seven was also used in demonical religions as well. A contract with the devil had to contain seven paragraphs, was concluded for seven years and signed by the person seven times. (Blavatsky)

Religious peoples were not the only ones to reference this number. There were cultural, architectural, and ceremonial implications as well. The Cherokee Indians regard the number seven as sacred. The ceremonial significance in their culture is captured in their seven ancient ceremonies with the seventh ceremony celebrated every seven years. (Lewis & Kneberg, 175) A few of the ceremonies focus on the number seven. The first moon of spring ceremony is seven days long. The Green Corn ceremony began on the seventh of August. During this ceremony the Chief and his seven councilors fasted while the tribe gathered seven ears of corn, each from a different clan’s field. (Lewis & Kneberg, 176-177) The Cherokee’s also have purification ceremonies in which a person is immersed seven times. (Mooney, 230).

Architecture has also been influenced by the number seven. The famous pagoda of Churingham is surrounded by seven square walls, painted in seven different colors, and in the middle of each wall is a seven storied pyramid. The Buddhist use seven-tier pagoda’s to signify the seven treasures that are the blessings from the seven northern stars. (Blavatsky) Along with the most impressive monuments known to exist, The Seven Wonders of the Ancient World http://ce.eng.usf.edu/pharos/wonders/map.html

The military’s 21-gun salute is centered on the number seven. The use of this symbol is traced to early warriors demonstrating peaceful intentions and was used universally. The act varied with time, place, and the weapon being used. Originally warships fired a seven-gun salute. The number seven was probably used because of astrological and Biblical importance. There were seven planets identified and the moon changed phases every seven days. ''The Bible'' states that God rested on the seventh day after Creation, every seventh year was sabbatical and that the seven times seventh year ushered in the Jubilee year. (Headquarters, Military District of Washington)

== External Links ==

* [http://litmuse.maconstate.edu/~glucas/archives/000360.shtml The Taming of Nature in Gilgamesh]
* [http://litmuse.maconstate.edu/~glucas/archives/000449.shtml Ecological Themes in Gilgamesh]
* [http://litmuse.maconstate.edu/~glucas/archives/000297.shtml Friendship and Two Epics]
* [http://novaonline.nv.cc.va.us/eli/eng251/gilgameshstudy.htm Gilgamesh Study Guide]

[[Category:World Literature]]

== Works Cited ==

* Blavatsky, H. P. “The Number Seven.” ''Theosophist'', (June, 1880.) 12 Feb. 2005 <http://theosophy.org/tlodocs/hpb/NumberSeven.htm>.

* “Gilgamesh.” [http://www.auburn.edu/~lundbmc/#Conclusion Conclusion]. 16 February, 2004.

* Harris, Andrew. “Seven.” (6 July 1999). 12 Feb.2005 http://www.vic.australis.com.au/hazz/number007.html

* Headquarters, Military District of Washington, ''Fact Sheet: Gun Salutes'', May 1969.

* Hooker, Richard. “Mesopotamia – Gilagamesh.” World Civilizations. Washington State University. Updated 6, July 1999. Tablets 1, 2, 5. 16 February, 2005. <http://www.wsu.edu/~dee/MESO/GILG.HTM>

* Jager, Bernd. “Eating as natural event and as intersubjective phenomenon: Towards a phenomenology of eating." ''Journal of Phenomenological Psychology.'' Spring 1999, Vol. 30 Issue 1: 66-118. EBSCOhost. GALILEO. 6 Feb. 2005 <http://www.galileo.usg.edu/>.

* Lewis, Thomas M. N. and Madeline Kneberg. “Tribes that Slumber Indians of the Tennessee Region.” Knoxville, Tennessee: The University of Tennessee Press,tenth printing (1994).

* Lishtar. “Gilagamesh and Enkidu – The Soul Siblings.” Gateways to Babylon. Updated 26 August, 1999. 16 February, 2005. <http://www.gatewaystobabylon.com/gods/partnerships/gilgaenk1.html>.

* Mooney, James. ''History, Myths, and Sacred Formulas of the Cherokees''. Asheville, North Carolina, 1992.

* Sahibzada, Mehnaz. “The Symbolism of the Number Seven in Islamic Culture and Rituals.” 15 Feb. 2005 http://www.wadsworth.com/religion_d/special_features/symbols/islamic.html

* ''The Norton Anthology of World Masterpieces''. 7th ed., New York: W. W. Norton & Company, 1998.

Epic of Gilgamesh/Anu

2006-06-24T21:42:46Z

Kroyal: italicized source

Anu was a sky-god, the god of heaven, lord of constellations, king of gods, spirits and demons, and lived in the highest heavenly regions. It was believed that he had the power to judge those who had committed crimes. Anu controls shooting stars, called 'kishru'. Anu is also in charge of the Bull of Heaven who can be sent to earth to avenge the gods. His symbol is the horned cap.Mesopotamian myths tell the story of how the earth was separated from heaven at the beginning of time. In these myths, heaven becomes Anu's home.

Works Cited:

“An –Anu.” ''Sumerian God and Goddess''. 23 June 2006. Crystalinks. 24 June 2006.
<http://www.crystalinks.com/sumergods.html>

Epic of Gilgamesh/Anu

2006-06-24T21:35:54Z

Kroyal: summary of anu

Anu was a sky-god, the god of heaven, lord of constellations, king of gods, spirits and demons, and lived in the highest heavenly regions. It was believed that he had the power to judge those who had committed crimes. Anu controls shooting stars, called 'kishru'. Anu is also in charge of the Bull of Heaven who can be sent to earth to avenge the gods. His symbol is the horned cap.Mesopotamian myths tell the story of how the earth was separated from heaven at the beginning of time. In these myths, heaven becomes Anu's home.

Works Cited:

“An –Anu.” Sumerian God and Goddess. 23 June 2006. Crystalinks. 24 June 2006.
<http://www.crystalinks.com/sumergods.html>

Epic of Gilgamesh

2006-06-24T21:12:51Z

Kroyal: added characters

[[Image:Gilgamesh.jpg|thumb|Gilgamesh]] While composed nearly five thousand years ago (2500-1500 BCE), ''Gilgamesh'' seems very as contemporary in its thematic concerns as it is alien in many of its cultural practices. Many of these themes emerge from a lost mythological tradition and a culture that is equally non-extant, the bonds of friendship, fear of death, and the quest for worldly renown still strike chords with us even in the twenty-first century.

==Characters==
* [[Gilgamesh]]
* [[Enkidu]]
* [[Anu]]

== Historical Context ==

''Gilgamesh'' is a primary epic, composed over a thousand years by cultural stories of the legendary king, Gilgamesh, who is thought to have historically ruled Uruk circa 2700 BCE. The oral stories were probably assembled by a poet and cast into the narrative form of the epic between 2000 and 1600 BCE and finally written on clay tablets in cuneiform during the reign of Assurbanipol in 668-627 BCE.

== Gilgamesh as Epic ==

Can ''Gilgamesh'' be called an Epic? Yes and No.

No, because the term epic is usually applied to exceptionally long poems that are narrated by someone else. ''Gilgamesh'' has three entries that one may consider to be poems. On page 34 ''Gilgamesh'' cries out to the counsellors of Uruk in what I would call a short prayer. On page 43 Ea speaks to Enlil about his misdeeds, the words that are indented have the characteristics of an epic poem. Ea words center on Enlil whose deeds can control the fate of human mankind.

Then again yes, ''Gilgamesh'' could be called a Primary Epic. The story of Gilgamesh has several episodes that are legendary. The first sentence of the story states, "''Gilgamesh'' is a poem of unparalleled antiquity, the first great heroic narrative of world literature" (Norton). A "[[Epic_Poetry#Primary_Epic|primary epic]]" "focuses on the personal concept of heroism, and the self-fulfillment and identity of the individual hero." Gilgamesh was definitely out for self-fulfillment. The ''Epic of Gilgamesh'' contains everything we can expect from a great epic literature. It portrays fantastic geographies, exotic characters, exhausting quests, heroic battles with monsters, supernatural beings and natural forces. Most important of all, it is an outstanding story of a great epic hero who is compelled to meet his destiny and who rises to every challenge with courage and determination.

== The Role of Enkidu ==
When the god Anu heard the city of Uruk lamenting the cruelty of their king, he responded by demanding of the goddess of creation: “You made him, O Aruru, now create his equal; let it be as like him as his own reflection, his second self, stormy heart for stormy heart” (19). Thus [[Enkidu]] was created to counterbalance the despotic Gilgamesh: whereas Gilgamesh was two thirds god and one third man, Enkidu was two thirds beast and one third man. Enkidu also acts as a reflection to Gilgamesh in that both must learn what it means to be human. In order to do this, each must distance himself from his animal or godly instincts. As for Enkidu, Jager states that “the wild man who is about to enter the human city must…forego living in a state of absolute unity with a savage and untamed nature.” Enkidu must break the bond between himself and the wilderness in order to be cultured and civilized. Similarly, Jager notes that “The king seeking to humanly inhabit his realm must forego treating that realm as a mere physical extension of himself to which he has completely unrestricted access.” Gilgamesh, like a weaning child, must recognize the break between himself as a ruler and the kingdom he reigns over. Both must learn how to properly inhabit the human realm before they can be considered human.

== Thematic Concerns ==

The [[Epic Poetry | epic]] takes as its primary concern Gilgamesh’s wisdom that he acquires during his journeys and the monuments that he constructs upon his return. Like the Homeric epics, Gilgamesh begins ''in medias res'' during the rule of a wild king, two-thirds god and one-third man. While Gilgamesh is strong and an obvious stud — at least in his own mind, his is cruel and naive, needing to discover what it means to be human if he is to become a good ruler and father.

=== Bonds of Friendship ===

His first lesson is one of friendship through the wild man Enkidu, more of an animal than man. Like all good, lasting friendships, Gilgamesh and Enkidu first attempt to kill each other when the latter comes to Uruk. Fortunately, they do not, yet Gilgamesh does get the slight upper-hand, and they become great friends. Indeed, while there is an implicit suggestion of Gilgamesh’s superiority over Enkidu, something akin most friendships, there is one who is dominant, choosing adventures, making decisions, and directing the ultimate course of the friendship. Gilgamesh, since he is the [[heroic ideal | epic hero]], seems to take this role, perhaps also suggesting the superiority of the cultured and civilized to the animal, or natural. This motif becomes even more apparent in their first adventure.

Strong bonds are usually formed when two people have a common goal, ideal, or interest. As stated in the epic, the gods created Enkidu to try to soften Gilgamesh-make him kinder and gentler. It was as if Homer wanted Gilgamesh to be perceived to be a bad little boy and provide an alter-ego to help Gilgamesh mature. People come in and out of one’s life for a purpose--some to be there for a long time and some for just a moment. Some are there to provide a particular purpose--maybe to teach a certain life’s lesson--and some to change lives forever--maybe a child or a teacher. Their time in one’s life may or may not accomplish its purpose because some are blinded by selfish desires. For Enkidu, his time with Gilgamesh was relatively short, but it was a relationship that Gilgamesh would never forget and which would affect him the rest of his own life. Even though their first meeting was stressful, they became best friends. Early in his existence, Enkidu had lost his physical strength through the trickery of sex with an encounter with a harlot. “It was Gilgamesh that sent a priestess to teach Enkidu the power of civilization, whereas by meeting Enkidu Gilgamesh felt for the first time the need to share and grow, it was through their friendship that Gilgamesh becomes less self-absorbed and most certainly, less lonely (Lishtar).” “Shamhat meets Enkidu at the watering-hole where all the wild animals gather; she offers herself to him and he submits, instantly losing his strength and wildness, but he gains understanding and knowledge. He laments for his lost state (Hooker, Tablet 1)”. Homer seemed to be presenting Enkidu in a more animalistic manner at first and then shows him becoming more human.

When Enkidu first came into the city, Gilgamesh, though not the groom, was about to go in and ravish a new bride. “Enkidu stands in front of the door of the marital chamber and blocks Gilgamesh's way. They fight furiously until Gilgamesh wins the upper hand; Enkidu concedes Gilgamesh's superiority and the two embrace and become devoted friends (Hooker, Tablet 2)”. Some believe that Gilgamesh and Enkidu were lovers, but Lishtar noted that, “…it is not implied in the text that Gilgamesh and Enkidu were lovers in the physical sense. They were though the best friends possible in all worlds, and this is a grace beyond measure (Lishtar)”. This is simply a tale, but ”the modern ideas and interpretations have been applied to it. This is not all bad because it helps relate to this ancient text, but when it comes down to it, it is not likely that this story is about sexuality (''Gilgamesh'').” Many friendships that start off with turmoil, wind up being the closest. Their friendship was genuine. Enkidu does seem to enjoy the camaraderie that he shares with Gilgamesh and when they enter the forest to cut down the cedar tress, he is the one who stands up to Humbaba, the great demon. “Enkidu shouts at Humbaba that the two of them are much stronger than the demon (Hooker, Tablet 5)”. “This is the real meaning of the bond between Enkidu and Gilgamesh, ideal self and bright shadow that stands by wherever we are (Lishtar).” This also occurs in one’s friendships today. One person seems to relish in the glory and the other may be just along for the ride or be the one who gets things done behind the scenes--not everyone wants to be king!

=== Quest for Worldly Renown ===

Now that we are friends, we have to party. Enkidu soon gets bored in Uruk — “I am oppressed by idleness” (23) — and Gilgamesh suggests they go get medieval of some evil: Humbaba. This feat will also prove Gilgamesh a real hero by allowing stories to be told about his great feats of manhood:

: I will set up my name in the place where the names of famous men are written, and where no man’s name is written yet I will raise a monument to the gods.

[[Image:Grendel.jpg|thumb|Humbaba]] While Humbaba lives in the Country of the Living, seemingly quite far from Uruk, and is apparently not an immediate threat to Gilgamesh’s people, this endeavor might seem a bit dubious. Perhaps this is a commentary on what men will do when they are bored: let’s go kill something. When we are at peace, we long for war? Humbaba might also represent a “holdfast,” something that while alive or existing — whether an idea or an actual threat — restricts a culture from developing beyond a certain point. Many such holdfasts pop up in western literature, cf. the dragon in Beowulf for one.

While Gilgamesh and Enkidu are successful in killing Humbaba — through episodes of fainting and friendly gibes — its death suggests more of an ambiguity in their success, as if something precious has been slain all for the pride of man (and I do mean man, here). Notice that when Humbaba is killed, the heroes begin cutting down trees: “They attacked the cedars . . . [and] cleared their roots as far as the banks of the Euphrates” (30). Like Enkidu’s education through the wiles of the harlot, this victory suggests that while the heroes accomplished their great victory, something is irrevocably lost because of their endeavor. Through the harlot, Enkidu forever loses his innocence, but what is lost in the killing of Humbaba is a bit more ambiguous. Perhaps this is an ecological statement about clearing rain forests millennia before we knew what effect that practice would have.

The ambiguity continues in the gods’ reaction to the death of Humbaba and the felling of the cedars: Enkidu must die. OK, maybe it has more to do with Gilgamesh’s arrogant dismissal of Ishtar, but regardless, the Bull of Heaven is sent to punish the heroes and Uruk. Even though the bull is defeated, Enkidu must die which precipitates Gilgamesh’s search for immortality — an escape from death. Notice that while Enkidu lays dying that he curses the city (civilization), the harlot (women that led to the destruction of his innocence), and the trapper (who precipitated the education of Enkidu). Enkidu’s curses further call into question the necessity of civilization and heroic quests: perhaps fame is not worth death.

=== Humbaba ===

"Humbaba whose name is 'Hugeness,' a ferocious giant. Enlil has appointed Humbaba to guard the forest and has armed him in sevenfold terrors, terrible to all flesh is Humbaba. When he roars it is like the torrent of the storm, his breath is like fire, and his jaws are death itself. He guards the cedars so well that when the wild heifer stirs in the forest, though she is sixty leagues distant, he hears her. Humbaba is a great warrior, a battering ram. Humbaba, the watchman of the forest never sleeps." (The Norton Anthology, 23)

Humbaba was also know as Huwawa. Humbaba is a monster in the epic of Gilgamesh who guards the cedar forest in the Lebanon mountains. He is a giant being and is sometimes shown with lion's claws, long hair, and a monstrous, hairy face. Humbaba is killed by the hero Gilgamesh and his friend Enkidu who journey to the forest to cut down cedar trees. (http://www.mesopotamia.co.uk/gods/explore/humbaba.html, 2005)

=== Escape from Death ===

After Enkidu’s death, Gilgamesh rips his clothes from his body and dons animal skins, symbolic of his repudiation of civilization and renown — that which caused the death of his friend. Gilgamesh’s subsequent journey is a psychological descent into his own psyche to discover his own meaning in a life that must end in death. His epic journey is pretty pathetic as far as epic journeys go: full of tantrums and failed tasks, Gilgamesh seems to return to Uruk empty-handed. Yet, he brings the story of his travel and carves it on the bricks that make up the foundation of Uruk, suggesting that civilization is ultimately built on stories: the written text is the key to progress, friendship, and immortality. Gilgamesh, then, becomes a scapegoat: he journeyed to meet Utnapishtim so his people did not have to. Though his journeys proved ostensibly unsuccessful, he returned humanized, ready to accept his place in the world and finally death when it would come.

''Gilgamesh'' leaves us with its moral: Do not abuse power, “deal justly with your servants in the palace, deal justly before the face of the Sun” (46). ''Gilgamesh'' is both “the darkness and the light of mankind” in that he brought suffering, but ultimately brought life to his people in the form of the story. What directions for life are contained within the epic? How many of these myths do we still live with today? These stories represent the good and the bad of humanity. What do we ultimately think of the stories, myths, codes for life that ''Gilgamesh'' ultimately passes on?

== Importance of Food and Drink ==

When we are first introduced to Enkindu, it is when “he was innocent of mankind, he knew nothing of the cultivated land” (19). He also “ate grass in the hills with the gazelle and lurked with wild beasts at the water-holes” (19). Though he is biologically human, he lives like a wild animal. One aspect of his animalism is his eating habits. The food we eat, the ways it is prepared and consumed, and the rituals of hospitality are all forms of culture and civilization. In order for Enkindu to learn to be human, he must learn to eat as one. When the shepherds originally present food to him the text states that, “Enkindu could only suck the milk of wild animals. He fumbled and gaped, at a loss what to do or how he should eat the bread and drink the strong wine” (22). Because he only knows how to eat as an animal, he is an animal.

Immediately after the harlot explains to him the way of human eating, and he consumes the bread and wine like a man, “He rubbed down the matted hair of his body and anointed himself with oil. Enkindu had become a man” (22). His new discovery of human eating has led to his humanization. According to Jager, Enkindu’s “exodus from an older and more primitive and confluent world and his entrance into a human cosmos is marked by a distinctly different way of…eating and drinking.” His new understanding of how humans prepare and eat food has granted him the capacity to act as a man, and therefore be admitted into human civilization. Jager also explains that “Fully human eating begins by domesticating natural grasses, roots and berries and by transforming them into agricultural crops.” Farming shows human advancement and technology. A refined taste for food and drink and an understanding of cultivation reflects cultural appreciation. Now that Enkindu can properly eat human food, he can acknowledge the society which produces it.

== Attitudes Toward Women ==

Gilgamesh's view of women is that of a male chauvinist (according to today’s standards). Not only is he a male chauvinist, but he "is the epitome of a bad ruler: arrogant, oppressive, and brutal." (The Norton Anthology, 17)"His lust leaves no virgin to her lover, neither the warrior's daughter nor the wife of the noble; yet this is the shepherd of the city, wise, comely, and resolute." (The Norton Anthology, 19) The men of Uruk were not happy with his behavior. Even noble Enkidu is upset at the news that Gilgamesh was to take a bride’s virginity before her marriage to her groom.

When Ishtar see Gilgamesh's great beauty she exclaims in glory, "Come to me ''Gilgamesh'', and be my bridegroom; grant me seed of you body, let me be your bride and you shall be my husband."(The Norton Anthology, 30) “She tried to make Gilgamesh her husband, but he refused her and reminded her of her former lovers, whom she mercilessly killed or left injured.” (Lindemans, Micha F. \ “Ishtar” \ www.pantheon.org \ July 25, 2004) He states that he doesn’t just want to be another piece of meat in her escapades of having sex with many men and leaving them. So he declines.

Gilgamesh is a control freak and if he were to marry Ishtar, he would lose that control. Also, Gilgamesh loves virgins and not loose women. This is seen in the opening statments listed above.

As we look at attitudes toward women, we cannot just look at Gilgamesh as an individual but at the whole story. The trapper's son was scared of Enkidu at first. The trapper's son went to Gilgamesh and got a harlot, (loose woman), to take to the watering hole to seduce Enkidu so his peers, the animals, would repel against him.

To humanize Enkidu, the harlot, was sent to seduce him. Enkidu, who ran with the animals and was basically one of them, came upon the harlot at the drinking hole where she exposed her breasts, got naked with him and had sex with him for six days and seven nights. After this, Enkidu had his fill and returned to be with the animals that rejected him and ran off. We hear of Enkidu being weak legged after his sexual escapades and unable to keep up with the animals. (The Norton Anthology, 20)

Women were looked at basically as sexual elements from the beginning of this tale and this has continued throughout time. So, is Gilgamesh really as bad as he was made out to be or is he just the same as some of the men in today's society? Women throughout modern day have used sex to get what they want. This is just an example of how women even back then used sex to get what they desired even if it was for someone else.

== Archetypes in Gilgamesh ==
An archetype in ''Gilgamesh'' was the number seven. The author used this archetype, very deliberately. After taking a closer look at this literary work it was discovered the number seven was used thirty-seven times. (''Norton Anthology'', 18-47) By taking a collaborative view of literary works throughout history it is revealed the continued use of the number seven. The number seven was used 700 times in ''The Bible'' (Harris) and twenty-five times in ''The Qu’ran'' (Sahibzada). There is no mistake about the author’s reference to this particular number based upon its cultural and religious significance. It has become evident the number seven held a sacred or significant meaning. But to better understand the significance of the continued reference to a particular number, one would have to take a closer look at the historical implications.

“Most cultures of the world hold certain numbers to be especially significant, even symbolic, and this is reflected in their religions. In the Abrahamic traditions, which originate in the Middle East, the number seven is of particular importance. Some of its significance stems from the ancient Sumerian and Babylonian civilizations, which identified seven planets and framed seven days of the week around them. Very early among Middle Eastern peoples, seven became known as a "perfect" number, symbolic of completeness and goodness.” (Sahibzada).

It is believed the origin of the number seven was established by the planets that were transformed into deities. The ancient Egyptians had seven original gods; the Phoenicians seven Kabiris; the Persians seven sacred horses of Mithra with seven gates, seven alters, and seven mysteries; the Parsees seven angels opposed by seven demons, seven celestial abodes paralleled by seven lower regions. The seven gods were often represented as one seven-headed deity. The whole heaven was subjected to seven planets; hence, in nearly all the religious systems we find seven heavens. The number seven was also used in demonical religions as well. A contract with the devil had to contain seven paragraphs, was concluded for seven years and signed by the person seven times. (Blavatsky)

Religious peoples were not the only ones to reference this number. There were cultural, architectural, and ceremonial implications as well. The Cherokee Indians regard the number seven as sacred. The ceremonial significance in their culture is captured in their seven ancient ceremonies with the seventh ceremony celebrated every seven years. (Lewis & Kneberg, 175) A few of the ceremonies focus on the number seven. The first moon of spring ceremony is seven days long. The Green Corn ceremony began on the seventh of August. During this ceremony the Chief and his seven councilors fasted while the tribe gathered seven ears of corn, each from a different clan’s field. (Lewis & Kneberg, 176-177) The Cherokee’s also have purification ceremonies in which a person is immersed seven times. (Mooney, 230).

Architecture has also been influenced by the number seven. The famous pagoda of Churingham is surrounded by seven square walls, painted in seven different colors, and in the middle of each wall is a seven storied pyramid. The Buddhist use seven-tier pagoda’s to signify the seven treasures that are the blessings from the seven northern stars. (Blavatsky) Along with the most impressive monuments known to exist, The Seven Wonders of the Ancient World http://ce.eng.usf.edu/pharos/wonders/map.html

The military’s 21-gun salute is centered on the number seven. The use of this symbol is traced to early warriors demonstrating peaceful intentions and was used universally. The act varied with time, place, and the weapon being used. Originally warships fired a seven-gun salute. The number seven was probably used because of astrological and Biblical importance. There were seven planets identified and the moon changed phases every seven days. ''The Bible'' states that God rested on the seventh day after Creation, every seventh year was sabbatical and that the seven times seventh year ushered in the Jubilee year. (Headquarters, Military District of Washington)

== External Links ==

* [http://litmuse.maconstate.edu/~glucas/archives/000360.shtml The Taming of Nature in Gilgamesh]
* [http://litmuse.maconstate.edu/~glucas/archives/000449.shtml Ecological Themes in Gilgamesh]
* [http://litmuse.maconstate.edu/~glucas/archives/000297.shtml Friendship and Two Epics]
* [http://novaonline.nv.cc.va.us/eli/eng251/gilgameshstudy.htm Gilgamesh Study Guide]

[[Category:World Literature]]

== Works Cited ==

* Blavatsky, H. P. “The Number Seven.” ''Theosophist'', (June, 1880.) 12 Feb. 2005 <http://theosophy.org/tlodocs/hpb/NumberSeven.htm>.

* “Gilgamesh.” [http://www.auburn.edu/~lundbmc/#Conclusion Conclusion]. 16 February, 2004.

* Harris, Andrew. “Seven.” (6 July 1999). 12 Feb.2005 http://www.vic.australis.com.au/hazz/number007.html

* Headquarters, Military District of Washington, ''Fact Sheet: Gun Salutes'', May 1969.

* Hooker, Richard. “Mesopotamia – Gilagamesh.” World Civilizations. Washington State University. Updated 6, July 1999. Tablets 1, 2, 5. 16 February, 2005. <http://www.wsu.edu/~dee/MESO/GILG.HTM>

* Jager, Bernd. “Eating as natural event and as intersubjective phenomenon: Towards a phenomenology of eating." ''Journal of Phenomenological Psychology.'' Spring 1999, Vol. 30 Issue 1: 66-118. EBSCOhost. GALILEO. 6 Feb. 2005 <http://www.galileo.usg.edu/>.

* Lewis, Thomas M. N. and Madeline Kneberg. “Tribes that Slumber Indians of the Tennessee Region.” Knoxville, Tennessee: The University of Tennessee Press,tenth printing (1994).

* Lishtar. “Gilagamesh and Enkidu – The Soul Siblings.” Gateways to Babylon. Updated 26 August, 1999. 16 February, 2005. <http://www.gatewaystobabylon.com/gods/partnerships/gilgaenk1.html>.

* Mooney, James. ''History, Myths, and Sacred Formulas of the Cherokees''. Asheville, North Carolina, 1992.

* Sahibzada, Mehnaz. “The Symbolism of the Number Seven in Islamic Culture and Rituals.” 15 Feb. 2005 http://www.wadsworth.com/religion_d/special_features/symbols/islamic.html

* ''The Norton Anthology of World Masterpieces''. 7th ed., New York: W. W. Norton & Company, 1998.

Medea

2006-06-22T22:09:58Z

Kroyal: /* Gods */

== Summary ==

[[Image:MedeaChariot.jpeg|thumb|Medea’s Chariot]]The play [[Medea]] begins in turmoil and escalates until the tragic end. Medea tells the story of passion that transforms from love to hate. Consumed with a passionate rage, Medea seeks to avenge her husband [[Jason]] who has wronged her. Jason has left Medea and taken a new wife, the daughter of king [[Kreon]] and a Greek.

The play opens outside the house of Medea and Jason in [[Corinth]]. The Nurse tells the sorrows of Medea and how Jason has abandoned Medea after all she has done for him. The Nurse is afraid Medea will harm someone close to her. Medea’s heart is full of violence especially for Jason and the children. Medea is overwhelmed with grief that is manifesting as jealousy and rage.

The Tutor appears with Medea two young children who have been outside playing. Medea’s children are oblivious to the resentment their mother is beginning to feel toward them. The Nurse warns the children to stay out of their mother’s sight. The Tutor is the bearer of bad news. The Tutor has heard rumors that Medea and her children will be exiled from Corinth. The Nurse is sympathetic to ''Medea’s'' plight while the Tutor is blasé.

The [[Chorus]] of Corinthian women arrives to check on Medea. The Chorus hears Medea’s cries and curses from inside the house. The Chorus asks the Nurse to go see if Medea will come outside so they can console her.

A distraught Medea enters the courtyard and delivers a poignant speech on the sufferings and indignations of women in an oppressively man’s world. Medea points out to the Chorus being a woman is even worst for her because she is a foreigner without a family or a home. The Chorus sympathizes with Medea. Medea despises Jason for taking another wife, and condemns Jason, his new bride, and king Kreon. Medea makes the Chorus promise if she finds a way to revenge Jason, they will remain silent. The Chorus gives Medea a vow of silence agreeing Medea is right to seek revenge.

Medea has been blatantly lamenting her disgruntlements. ''Medea’s'' condemnations have come to the attention of king Kreon. King Kreon enters and exiles Medea and her children because he is afraid of Medea. Using her children, Medea appeals to king Kreon on a paternal level and asks for one more day for the sake of the children so she can get her affairs in order. King Kreon reluctantly agrees and allows Medea to stay in Corinth one more day convinced she could not do the evil he fears in one day.

The Chorus pities Medea but Medea assures them one day is all she needs to avenge Jason faithlessness. When considering how to kill her enemies, Medea rules out swords or fire because that would mean close contact with the victims and she may get caught giving her enemies a reason to laugh at her. Being humiliated is one of Medea greatest fears and motivates her to lash out to save face. Medea decides to use poison. A conniving manipulator Medea schemes to poison Jason, his new bride, and king Kreon. Medea is determined no one especially a man will mistreat her and live to tell about it.

Jason visits Medea. Similar to Kreon when he visited Medea, Jason immediately chastises Medea for her behavior and blames her for her own exile. Medea calls Jason a coward and reminds him of all she has done for him in the name of love. Medea is instrumental in assisting Jason in obtaining the Golden Fleece. Medea betrays her father, murders her brother, an exile from her homeland, and orchestrates the death of Pelias … all for a man who has snubbed her. Jason tries to convince Medea he married king Kreon daughter for her and their children sake. Marrying into prosperity will benefit them all. Jason argues Medea has benefited from their marriage more than he. Jason took Medea away from a barbaric, lawless land. Medea is very popular living among the Greeks. ''Medea’s'' cleverness is admired in Corinth whereas in [[Colchis]] cleverness is not revered. Also, the children need royal siblings to protect them. Medea and Jason continue to argue. Medea feels Jason should have been man enough to tell her he has taken a new bride. Jason believes Medea is too irrational to handle the news of his bride and her behavior now reflects he was correct in his assumption. Jason offers Medea contacts with his friends that will help her once she and the kids are exiled from Corinth. Fiercely pride Medea refuses to take anything from Jason who betrayed her.

By chance Medea’s friend king [[Aigeus]] of [[Athens]] visits. Medea envisions a safe haven for escape. Medea tells Aigeus of Jason’s treachery and her pending exile. Medea beseeches Aigeus for asylum in Athens. King Aigeus unaware of Medea’s murderous intentions offers Medea sanctuary in return for her offer of drugs that will end his childlessness. However, king Aigeus gives Medea one condition for sanctuary, Medea must come to Athens on her own will. Aigeus swears an oath to all the gods at Medea appeal that he will not turn her over to her enemies no matter what. Reassured Medea sets her scheme for vengeance in motion. Medea tells the Chorus of her plans.

Medea’s scheme of murder is coming together. Medea has a safe haven once the murders are complete. As her scheme unfolds, Medea realizes she must also murder her own children to completely avenge Jason’s dishonor. Medea wants to hurt Jason deeply and she cannot risk anyone who does not love her children hurting them. The Chorus begs Medea to reconsider murdering her children. Medea says, ”No compromise is possible” (803).

Medea sends for Jason. Medea uses an assuaging attitude with Jason. Medea apologizes for her angry and tells Jason he is right to have married king Kreon’s daughter. Medea pretends to be submissive like Jason expects a good wife to be. After “''kissing up''” to Jason, Medea sends her children along with Jason and the Tutor to the bride with gifts of a poison woven dress and a golden diadem.

The Tutor returns with the children and tells Medea the royal princess will let the children stay in Corinth. The Tutor is baffled by Medea’s melancholy behavior. Medea exhibits tenderness and cold-heartedness as she cries and talks to her children preparing herself to murder them. When Medea’s children smile at her she considers relinquishing her murderous scheme. The fury Medea feels at being betrayed by Jason conquers her resolve. Medea is compelled to finish what has already been started.

Medea anxiously waits for news from the palace. The [[Messenger]] enters surprise Medea is hanging around. The Messenger tells Medea to run. The Messenger brings news that the royal princess and king Kreon are dead. Medea glories in the details as the Messenger tells her of the anguish deaths. Jason’s bride and king Kreon die an awful, torturous death with suffering as well. The golden diadem burst into flames sitting upon the royal princess head burning her body and the woven dress sloughs the flesh from her bones. As king Kreon cradles his daughter dead body the poison consumes him as the poisonous woven dress adhered to his flesh.

Jason returns looking for his children to protect them from the angry Corinthian mob after he finds out his new bride and father-in-law have been murdered by Medea. The Chorus tells Jason his children have been murdered by their mother’s hand. Jason is appalled and looks for Medea. Medea has hung around to gloat. Medea appears above the place in a chariot drawn by dragons provided by her grandfather, [[Helios]], the sun god. The children bodies are on the chariot. Jason begs for the children’s bodies, but Medea cynically laughs at him refusing to give his the honor of burying the children dead bodies. Jason desperately wants to kiss his dead children and bury them, but Medea refuses to give him the satisfaction. Jason insults Medea by telling her a Greek woman would never do the things she has done. Medea and Jason blame each other for the children’s death. Medea prophesies Jason’s death. Medea and Jason argue violently as the play comes to an end. The Chorus closes the play reflecting on capricious nature of gods’ will. Medea succeeds in revenge and Jason is lonely and tormented. Jason has lost his financial security, his status, and children to carry on his name. Jason is left without distinction. and Medea’s revenge is achieved.

== Themes and Motifs ==
=== Right Message, Wrong Messenger ===

Euripides’ Medea, was the first in a series of plays in which vivid, powerful women appeared on the Euripidean stage. It was produced in the year that the Peloponnesian War began, and sought to play on the low morale of the public to restore the female sex in positions of social influence and power. Throughout the centuries it has been regarded as one of the most powerful of the Greek tragedies, and also one in which the theme of women was more important than most. It is in this play that Euripides could either restore or condemn the female populace in society (Pelling).

Euripides questions many social norms of the period, but he uses a female such as Medea to convey his message. While Medea has no legal rights, she is the sorceress’ grandchild of the Sun God and therefore able to articulately explain her actions and passionately act on her plans. She is initially able to gain the sympathy and support of the Corinthian women for her plight by passionately pleading her case to the public at large. Medea’s passionate arguments fly in the face of the Greek tradition that only the male has the ability and right to lucid, rational argument. Jason although regarded as civilized by Greek society, is by contrast weak, compromised and cowardly. Medea also challenges ancient Greek society’s decree that the greatest glory for a woman was to bear children, provide sex and to fulfill the demands of her husband (Rassidakis 220-226). From the first compelling moments of this one-act play the audience is drawn into contradictions confronting Medea: to challenge injustice and betrayal or accommodate to it and the financial security and comfort it could bring (Pucci). Traditional behavior of women was a very important aspect of this play, and portraying Medea as both similar and different to fellow womankind allowed the audience to make judgment on the role of women as they knew it. Medea recurrently assaulted fundamental and sacred values and that gave the play much of its power and allowed Euripides to most persuasively portray her as an incarnation of disorder. Could any male audience possibly start to respect any woman that could crush basic human order? Euripides did not himself condemn Medea. Rather, he gave the audience a choice on whether to accept her character and actions. However by implication he is associating a breakdown in human order as being due to the wickedness in such a woman. Yet associating such a drastic event with women would imply that they had the power to be so destructive, and that was not an option of the times - especially when a war had just broken out, and unity was of great importance (McDermott).

In the tragedy Medea, Euripides fails to rehabilitate the female sex. He chooses a semi-divine, foreign sorceress to voice the appeals of ordinary Athenian wives. She is a woman capable of murder, manipulation and deception, and she has no sense of remorse. In choosing her, Euripides appears to be sending out mixed signals concerning women. Her concerns are those that apply to the majority of women at the time, and an audience would no doubt have understood these; yet Medea deals with them in a way that is abhorrent for a woman of fifth-century Athens (Easterling). She invokes both pathos and disgust, and, for a male audience, she would encourage distrust and continuing ‘imprisonment’ and lower social status for women. Although Euripides may well have believed in promoting womankind, it would have been difficult to put this idea across to the male audience of the day, and that may be why he is unable to make any significant advances in the Medea. He had the right message, but used the wrong messenger (Strauss 237-270).

=== Xenophobia ===

Euripides’s Medea explores the tensions which existed between citizens and foreigners and Greece’s subsequent Xenophobia. In the play, Medea represents the non-citizen who completely lacked legal and social rights. Not only is she far from the comforts of her native land, but also, as both a woman and a foreigner, she is viewed as a “poor creature” (643), below the level of a human being.

As Doctor Gerry Lucas pointed out in his lecture, marriage was a citizen’s contract, meaning Medea had no legal hold on Jason and could not take any form of official recourse. The Nurse laments that “…she has discovered by her sufferings/ What it means to one not to have lost one’s own country” (643). The Nurse is making a deliberate comparison to Jason, who as a male citizen enjoyed legal protection and political activity. Medea, a female non-citizen, is left without a voice or support. Her lack of institutional support led to the necessity that she herself administer Jason’s punishment.

Jason most aptly expresses the Xenophobic snobbery inherent in such disparity between citizen and foreigner. As he explains to Medea the advantages of living in a ‘civilized’ culture he insists that “…instead of living among barbarians/ You inhabit a Greek land and understand our ways/ How to live by law instead of the sweet will of force” (653.) Such ethnocentric attitudes were both stemmed from and perpetuated by the lack of citizen’s rights. According to Wikipedia, women and foreigners were unable to vote and therefore could not create public policy that would help eradicate Ancient Greece’s sexism and xenophobia.

===Feminist Concerns===

Euripides wrote ''Medea'' in 431 B.C. (640). Greek mythology shows us how Greeks, at that time, had firm beliefs on how women should behave themselves and the values they should hold. The perceived submissive behavior of women begins the very moment a wife arrives in her husband’s home (O’Higgins 104). A woman is supposed to provide heirs to the man (O’Higgins 104).

An Athenian perception pertaining to a “good woman” was that a woman be loyal to her husband and children (Sourvinou-Inwood 254). The most common characteristics of a good woman would be goodness, self-control and the fact that she was devoted to her husband and children (Sourvinou-Inwood 254). A good woman would reflect the culture’s established values and provide a look into the culture itself. A bad woman would be the opposite of the positive norm. In the beginning of ''Medea'', she portrays herself as a good woman. She was devoted to Jason and loved him so much that she felt as though she could not survive without him. When the nurse is talking in the beginning she states that “poor Medea is slighted, and cries aloud on the vows they made to each other, the right hands clasped in eternal promise (643).” Even though the play begins as seeing Medea as a normal, possibly good woman, she has already shown signs of abnormality in her behavior for a woman at that time. Medea is already showing signs of hatefulness towards her children. “I hate you, children of a hateful mother (645).” Medea is already showing behavior that women would not dare show in this time.

Medea could be seen as a heroine for women who do not want to be confined to the role of the “producer of legitimate offspring (McDonald 303).” By killing her children, she separates herself independently from her husband and the general patriarchy (McDonald 304). Even though at this time, husband’s were expected to be with other women, Medea feels as though her family rights were violated. Medea was also different in this aspect. She didn’t believe that and felt vengeful. The ultimate punishment for Jason, was to violently take his heirs from him. Medea’s anger turned into aggressive action, which can make her into a symbol for women (McDonald 304).

Throughout the play, Medea was more or less an ordinary woman portrayed as a bad woman. However, she could be the victim of male power and just seemed very out of the ordinary for the role of females at this time (Sourvinou-Inwood 258). She ended up being a version of a very bad woman, by killing her son’s and wreaking havoc on Jason and male power (Sourvinou-Inwood 258).

The idea explored in this play possibly suggests that women like Medea “use the weapons of the weak, which are both deceitful and violent and hurt men where they are vulnerable to women (Sourvinou-Inwood 261).” The play suggests that normal philosophy is not perfect and easy and if things go wrong men also suffer.

===Disease===

Medea refers to disease that her children caught from Jason. Disease stand for the Greek society.The Greek society was rule by laws that restraint the citizen to certain things. In Greek society, women wasn't allow to take thier revenge out on the husband.

== Historical Context ==

Greek tragic playwright, Euripides was born in Athens circa 480 BCE. He is credited with authoring at least 80 plays, 19 of which have survived until modern times. Several of his tragedies feature very strong female characters, including ''The Trojan Women'' and ''Medea''. He died at the court of the Macedonian king in 406 BCE. His work gained a greater popularity after his death than it had received during his lifetime (Crystal 317).

''Medea'' was first produced in Athens in 431 BCE. The earliest works in which Medea first appeared, such as the ''Building of the Argo'' and the ''Journey of Jason to the Cochians'' by Ehpimenides of Crete are only fragments, but her story seems to be an old and popular one (Johnston 3). From at least the early fifth century B.C., Medea was seen as a complex figure. Medea exhibited an extraordinary range of behavior and was different from most other figures in Greek myth(Johnston 6). According to legislation passed, twenty years earlier, a foreign woman could not legally marry an Athenian male. Any children begotten through such a union would not be considered legitimate heirs in the eyes of the law (Vandiver 217-16). In the late fifth century, after Euripides production of ''Medea'', everyone began to emphasize Medea’s role as a foreigner within the Greek Society (Johnston 8). Medea also began to challenge thoughts of what drove humans to inhuman behavior (Johnston 10).

Medea has moved to the forefront in the twentieth century. She forces us today to look into the depths of our own souls (Johnston 17). Even though Medea was first produced in 431 B.C. she is still shown today as a “barbarian woman” and shows us the crime of infanticide existed even in Euripides time period.

== Characters ==
* [[Jason]]
* [[Medea]]
* [[Kreon]]
* [[Aigeus]]
* [[Chorus]]

Medea is the princess of the Isle of Colchis(642). Medea is a sorceress, skilled in magic, and is renowned for her cleverness. Medea comes from a prestigious lineage; she is the daughter of king Aeetes and Idyia and the granddaughter of the sun god, Helios, and the niece of Circe who is also known as a sorceress. Medea admires and is a protégé of goddess Hecate, a patron of witchcraft.

Medea falls in love with a man named Jason when he reached the land of Colchis in pursuit of the Golden Fleece.(642) Medea falls in love with Jason, helps him steal the Golden Fleece from her own country and leaves with him.(642) She even kills her own brother to run away with Jason. They eventually marry, have children, and live in exile in Corinth.(643)

Medea learns that Jason plans to marry the King of Corinth’s daughter. (643) She learns he has intentions of marrying her and leaving Medea and the kids to fend for themselves.(647) Kreon, King of Corinth, hears of Medea’s anger and threats with Jason and the king’s daughter.(648) Kreon approaches Medea and sentences her and her children to exile from Corinth.(648)

Due to the drastic news of Medea's husband, she becomes furious and in her angered state plans for the demise of her husband, his new bride to be, and her father.(658) Medea first covers her base by finding a safe place to live in exile. (656) King Aigeus, King of Athens, agrees that if she can find her way to his doorstep she can stay forever and be safe in return for her helping him to produce a male heir with his wife.(656)

Now Medea plans the way to kill Jason’s bride to be and anyone who touches her.(658) She plans to poison two bridal gifts for Jason’s new bride and have the children hand deliver them to her.(659) Jason falls for the plan and takes the children to his bride to be where she receives her gifts and puts them on falling to her death.(664) A messenger tells Medea the fate of her children and Jason then finds Medea after finding out the dastardly deed she has done.(669) Medea escapes Corinth with her dead children on a dragon drawn chariot given to her by Helios, her grandfather to protect her from her enemies.(670) She escapes to live in Athens and Jason never sees his children again.(670)
==Gods==
* [[Aphrodite]]
* [[Pelias]]

== Commentaries ==
* [http://litmuse.maconstate.edu/~glucas/archives/000320.shtml Euripides' ''Medea'': Patriarchal Terrorism]]

== External Links ==
* [http://www.pantheon.org/articles/m/medea.html Medea]
== Questions for Consideration==
* [[What was the Golden Fleece?]]
* [[Was Jason a caring father/husband?]]
* [[Why would any mother kill their children?]]
* [[Why did Creon choose Jason to marry his daughter?]]
* [[How is Medea powerful as a women?]]
* [[Is Medea somewhat immortal?]]
* [[Why does Jason wait until the end to express his love for his children?]]
* [[Medea a feminist character, what implications does her action present?]]
* [[Was Medea schizophrenic?]]
* [[Was Medea a witch?]]
* [[Why couldn't Jason see Medea's muderous intent?]]

== Works Cited ==
* “Athenian Democracy.” 2005. Wikipedia. 8 April 2005 <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Athenian_democracy#Citizenship_in_Athens>.
* Buxon, Richard. ''The Complete World of Greek Mythology''. NY: Thames & Hudson. 2004.
* Crystal, David. ''The Cambridge Biographical Encyclopedia.'' Press Syndicate of the University of Cambridge. New York. 1995.
* Easterling, P.E. “The Infanticide in Euripides’ ''Medea''.” ''YCS'' 25, 1977.
* Ferguson, John.'' A Companion to Greek Tragedy''. TX: University of Texas Press. 1972.
* Graves, Robert. ''Greek Myths''. NY: Penguin Books. 1981.
* Grimal, Pierre. ''Larousse World Mythology''. New Jersey: Chartwheel Books Inc. 1973.
* Lattimore, Richard. ''The Poetry of Greek Tragedy.'' MD: John Hopkins Press. 1958.
* McDermott, Emily A. Euripedes’ Medea: The Incarnation of Disorder. University Park, PA. 1989.
* Melchinger, Siegfried. ''Sophocles''. New York: Frederick Ungar Publishing Co. 1974. 35-42.
* Pelling, Christopher. ''Greek Tragedy and the Historian''. Oxford, 1997.
* Pucci, Pietro. ''The Violence of Pity in Euripides’ Medea''. Cornell University, 1980.
* Ober, Josiah and Strauss, Barry. “Drama, Political Rhetoric, and Discourse of Athenian Democracy.” ''Drama in Its Social Context''. Ed. Winkler, John J. Athenian. Princeton, 1990.
* O’Higgins, Dolores M., Sourvinou-Inwood, Christiane, Johnston, Sarah Iles, and McDonald, Marianne. ''Medea: Essays on Medea in Myth, Literature, Philosophy, and Art.'' Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1997.
* Rassidakis, Kristina. “The origins of love, hate, and retaliation in Euripides tragedy ''Medea'': a psychodynamic approach.” ''Changes: International Journal of Psychology and Psychotherapy'' 15, 1997.
* Vandiver, Elizabeth. ''Greek Tragedy''. The Teaching Company. Course # 217. Lectures 1-24.

[[Category:World Literature]]

Medea

2006-06-22T22:07:43Z

Kroyal: added pieria

== Summary ==

[[Image:MedeaChariot.jpeg|thumb|Medea’s Chariot]]The play [[Medea]] begins in turmoil and escalates until the tragic end. Medea tells the story of passion that transforms from love to hate. Consumed with a passionate rage, Medea seeks to avenge her husband [[Jason]] who has wronged her. Jason has left Medea and taken a new wife, the daughter of king [[Kreon]] and a Greek.

The play opens outside the house of Medea and Jason in [[Corinth]]. The Nurse tells the sorrows of Medea and how Jason has abandoned Medea after all she has done for him. The Nurse is afraid Medea will harm someone close to her. Medea’s heart is full of violence especially for Jason and the children. Medea is overwhelmed with grief that is manifesting as jealousy and rage.

The Tutor appears with Medea two young children who have been outside playing. Medea’s children are oblivious to the resentment their mother is beginning to feel toward them. The Nurse warns the children to stay out of their mother’s sight. The Tutor is the bearer of bad news. The Tutor has heard rumors that Medea and her children will be exiled from Corinth. The Nurse is sympathetic to ''Medea’s'' plight while the Tutor is blasé.

The [[Chorus]] of Corinthian women arrives to check on Medea. The Chorus hears Medea’s cries and curses from inside the house. The Chorus asks the Nurse to go see if Medea will come outside so they can console her.

A distraught Medea enters the courtyard and delivers a poignant speech on the sufferings and indignations of women in an oppressively man’s world. Medea points out to the Chorus being a woman is even worst for her because she is a foreigner without a family or a home. The Chorus sympathizes with Medea. Medea despises Jason for taking another wife, and condemns Jason, his new bride, and king Kreon. Medea makes the Chorus promise if she finds a way to revenge Jason, they will remain silent. The Chorus gives Medea a vow of silence agreeing Medea is right to seek revenge.

Medea has been blatantly lamenting her disgruntlements. ''Medea’s'' condemnations have come to the attention of king Kreon. King Kreon enters and exiles Medea and her children because he is afraid of Medea. Using her children, Medea appeals to king Kreon on a paternal level and asks for one more day for the sake of the children so she can get her affairs in order. King Kreon reluctantly agrees and allows Medea to stay in Corinth one more day convinced she could not do the evil he fears in one day.

The Chorus pities Medea but Medea assures them one day is all she needs to avenge Jason faithlessness. When considering how to kill her enemies, Medea rules out swords or fire because that would mean close contact with the victims and she may get caught giving her enemies a reason to laugh at her. Being humiliated is one of Medea greatest fears and motivates her to lash out to save face. Medea decides to use poison. A conniving manipulator Medea schemes to poison Jason, his new bride, and king Kreon. Medea is determined no one especially a man will mistreat her and live to tell about it.

Jason visits Medea. Similar to Kreon when he visited Medea, Jason immediately chastises Medea for her behavior and blames her for her own exile. Medea calls Jason a coward and reminds him of all she has done for him in the name of love. Medea is instrumental in assisting Jason in obtaining the Golden Fleece. Medea betrays her father, murders her brother, an exile from her homeland, and orchestrates the death of Pelias … all for a man who has snubbed her. Jason tries to convince Medea he married king Kreon daughter for her and their children sake. Marrying into prosperity will benefit them all. Jason argues Medea has benefited from their marriage more than he. Jason took Medea away from a barbaric, lawless land. Medea is very popular living among the Greeks. ''Medea’s'' cleverness is admired in Corinth whereas in [[Colchis]] cleverness is not revered. Also, the children need royal siblings to protect them. Medea and Jason continue to argue. Medea feels Jason should have been man enough to tell her he has taken a new bride. Jason believes Medea is too irrational to handle the news of his bride and her behavior now reflects he was correct in his assumption. Jason offers Medea contacts with his friends that will help her once she and the kids are exiled from Corinth. Fiercely pride Medea refuses to take anything from Jason who betrayed her.

By chance Medea’s friend king [[Aigeus]] of [[Athens]] visits. Medea envisions a safe haven for escape. Medea tells Aigeus of Jason’s treachery and her pending exile. Medea beseeches Aigeus for asylum in Athens. King Aigeus unaware of Medea’s murderous intentions offers Medea sanctuary in return for her offer of drugs that will end his childlessness. However, king Aigeus gives Medea one condition for sanctuary, Medea must come to Athens on her own will. Aigeus swears an oath to all the gods at Medea appeal that he will not turn her over to her enemies no matter what. Reassured Medea sets her scheme for vengeance in motion. Medea tells the Chorus of her plans.

Medea’s scheme of murder is coming together. Medea has a safe haven once the murders are complete. As her scheme unfolds, Medea realizes she must also murder her own children to completely avenge Jason’s dishonor. Medea wants to hurt Jason deeply and she cannot risk anyone who does not love her children hurting them. The Chorus begs Medea to reconsider murdering her children. Medea says, ”No compromise is possible” (803).

Medea sends for Jason. Medea uses an assuaging attitude with Jason. Medea apologizes for her angry and tells Jason he is right to have married king Kreon’s daughter. Medea pretends to be submissive like Jason expects a good wife to be. After “''kissing up''” to Jason, Medea sends her children along with Jason and the Tutor to the bride with gifts of a poison woven dress and a golden diadem.

The Tutor returns with the children and tells Medea the royal princess will let the children stay in Corinth. The Tutor is baffled by Medea’s melancholy behavior. Medea exhibits tenderness and cold-heartedness as she cries and talks to her children preparing herself to murder them. When Medea’s children smile at her she considers relinquishing her murderous scheme. The fury Medea feels at being betrayed by Jason conquers her resolve. Medea is compelled to finish what has already been started.

Medea anxiously waits for news from the palace. The [[Messenger]] enters surprise Medea is hanging around. The Messenger tells Medea to run. The Messenger brings news that the royal princess and king Kreon are dead. Medea glories in the details as the Messenger tells her of the anguish deaths. Jason’s bride and king Kreon die an awful, torturous death with suffering as well. The golden diadem burst into flames sitting upon the royal princess head burning her body and the woven dress sloughs the flesh from her bones. As king Kreon cradles his daughter dead body the poison consumes him as the poisonous woven dress adhered to his flesh.

Jason returns looking for his children to protect them from the angry Corinthian mob after he finds out his new bride and father-in-law have been murdered by Medea. The Chorus tells Jason his children have been murdered by their mother’s hand. Jason is appalled and looks for Medea. Medea has hung around to gloat. Medea appears above the place in a chariot drawn by dragons provided by her grandfather, [[Helios]], the sun god. The children bodies are on the chariot. Jason begs for the children’s bodies, but Medea cynically laughs at him refusing to give his the honor of burying the children dead bodies. Jason desperately wants to kiss his dead children and bury them, but Medea refuses to give him the satisfaction. Jason insults Medea by telling her a Greek woman would never do the things she has done. Medea and Jason blame each other for the children’s death. Medea prophesies Jason’s death. Medea and Jason argue violently as the play comes to an end. The Chorus closes the play reflecting on capricious nature of gods’ will. Medea succeeds in revenge and Jason is lonely and tormented. Jason has lost his financial security, his status, and children to carry on his name. Jason is left without distinction. and Medea’s revenge is achieved.

== Themes and Motifs ==
=== Right Message, Wrong Messenger ===

Euripides’ Medea, was the first in a series of plays in which vivid, powerful women appeared on the Euripidean stage. It was produced in the year that the Peloponnesian War began, and sought to play on the low morale of the public to restore the female sex in positions of social influence and power. Throughout the centuries it has been regarded as one of the most powerful of the Greek tragedies, and also one in which the theme of women was more important than most. It is in this play that Euripides could either restore or condemn the female populace in society (Pelling).

Euripides questions many social norms of the period, but he uses a female such as Medea to convey his message. While Medea has no legal rights, she is the sorceress’ grandchild of the Sun God and therefore able to articulately explain her actions and passionately act on her plans. She is initially able to gain the sympathy and support of the Corinthian women for her plight by passionately pleading her case to the public at large. Medea’s passionate arguments fly in the face of the Greek tradition that only the male has the ability and right to lucid, rational argument. Jason although regarded as civilized by Greek society, is by contrast weak, compromised and cowardly. Medea also challenges ancient Greek society’s decree that the greatest glory for a woman was to bear children, provide sex and to fulfill the demands of her husband (Rassidakis 220-226). From the first compelling moments of this one-act play the audience is drawn into contradictions confronting Medea: to challenge injustice and betrayal or accommodate to it and the financial security and comfort it could bring (Pucci). Traditional behavior of women was a very important aspect of this play, and portraying Medea as both similar and different to fellow womankind allowed the audience to make judgment on the role of women as they knew it. Medea recurrently assaulted fundamental and sacred values and that gave the play much of its power and allowed Euripides to most persuasively portray her as an incarnation of disorder. Could any male audience possibly start to respect any woman that could crush basic human order? Euripides did not himself condemn Medea. Rather, he gave the audience a choice on whether to accept her character and actions. However by implication he is associating a breakdown in human order as being due to the wickedness in such a woman. Yet associating such a drastic event with women would imply that they had the power to be so destructive, and that was not an option of the times - especially when a war had just broken out, and unity was of great importance (McDermott).

In the tragedy Medea, Euripides fails to rehabilitate the female sex. He chooses a semi-divine, foreign sorceress to voice the appeals of ordinary Athenian wives. She is a woman capable of murder, manipulation and deception, and she has no sense of remorse. In choosing her, Euripides appears to be sending out mixed signals concerning women. Her concerns are those that apply to the majority of women at the time, and an audience would no doubt have understood these; yet Medea deals with them in a way that is abhorrent for a woman of fifth-century Athens (Easterling). She invokes both pathos and disgust, and, for a male audience, she would encourage distrust and continuing ‘imprisonment’ and lower social status for women. Although Euripides may well have believed in promoting womankind, it would have been difficult to put this idea across to the male audience of the day, and that may be why he is unable to make any significant advances in the Medea. He had the right message, but used the wrong messenger (Strauss 237-270).

=== Xenophobia ===

Euripides’s Medea explores the tensions which existed between citizens and foreigners and Greece’s subsequent Xenophobia. In the play, Medea represents the non-citizen who completely lacked legal and social rights. Not only is she far from the comforts of her native land, but also, as both a woman and a foreigner, she is viewed as a “poor creature” (643), below the level of a human being.

As Doctor Gerry Lucas pointed out in his lecture, marriage was a citizen’s contract, meaning Medea had no legal hold on Jason and could not take any form of official recourse. The Nurse laments that “…she has discovered by her sufferings/ What it means to one not to have lost one’s own country” (643). The Nurse is making a deliberate comparison to Jason, who as a male citizen enjoyed legal protection and political activity. Medea, a female non-citizen, is left without a voice or support. Her lack of institutional support led to the necessity that she herself administer Jason’s punishment.

Jason most aptly expresses the Xenophobic snobbery inherent in such disparity between citizen and foreigner. As he explains to Medea the advantages of living in a ‘civilized’ culture he insists that “…instead of living among barbarians/ You inhabit a Greek land and understand our ways/ How to live by law instead of the sweet will of force” (653.) Such ethnocentric attitudes were both stemmed from and perpetuated by the lack of citizen’s rights. According to Wikipedia, women and foreigners were unable to vote and therefore could not create public policy that would help eradicate Ancient Greece’s sexism and xenophobia.

===Feminist Concerns===

Euripides wrote ''Medea'' in 431 B.C. (640). Greek mythology shows us how Greeks, at that time, had firm beliefs on how women should behave themselves and the values they should hold. The perceived submissive behavior of women begins the very moment a wife arrives in her husband’s home (O’Higgins 104). A woman is supposed to provide heirs to the man (O’Higgins 104).

An Athenian perception pertaining to a “good woman” was that a woman be loyal to her husband and children (Sourvinou-Inwood 254). The most common characteristics of a good woman would be goodness, self-control and the fact that she was devoted to her husband and children (Sourvinou-Inwood 254). A good woman would reflect the culture’s established values and provide a look into the culture itself. A bad woman would be the opposite of the positive norm. In the beginning of ''Medea'', she portrays herself as a good woman. She was devoted to Jason and loved him so much that she felt as though she could not survive without him. When the nurse is talking in the beginning she states that “poor Medea is slighted, and cries aloud on the vows they made to each other, the right hands clasped in eternal promise (643).” Even though the play begins as seeing Medea as a normal, possibly good woman, she has already shown signs of abnormality in her behavior for a woman at that time. Medea is already showing signs of hatefulness towards her children. “I hate you, children of a hateful mother (645).” Medea is already showing behavior that women would not dare show in this time.

Medea could be seen as a heroine for women who do not want to be confined to the role of the “producer of legitimate offspring (McDonald 303).” By killing her children, she separates herself independently from her husband and the general patriarchy (McDonald 304). Even though at this time, husband’s were expected to be with other women, Medea feels as though her family rights were violated. Medea was also different in this aspect. She didn’t believe that and felt vengeful. The ultimate punishment for Jason, was to violently take his heirs from him. Medea’s anger turned into aggressive action, which can make her into a symbol for women (McDonald 304).

Throughout the play, Medea was more or less an ordinary woman portrayed as a bad woman. However, she could be the victim of male power and just seemed very out of the ordinary for the role of females at this time (Sourvinou-Inwood 258). She ended up being a version of a very bad woman, by killing her son’s and wreaking havoc on Jason and male power (Sourvinou-Inwood 258).

The idea explored in this play possibly suggests that women like Medea “use the weapons of the weak, which are both deceitful and violent and hurt men where they are vulnerable to women (Sourvinou-Inwood 261).” The play suggests that normal philosophy is not perfect and easy and if things go wrong men also suffer.

===Disease===

Medea refers to disease that her children caught from Jason. Disease stand for the Greek society.The Greek society was rule by laws that restraint the citizen to certain things. In Greek society, women wasn't allow to take thier revenge out on the husband.

== Historical Context ==

Greek tragic playwright, Euripides was born in Athens circa 480 BCE. He is credited with authoring at least 80 plays, 19 of which have survived until modern times. Several of his tragedies feature very strong female characters, including ''The Trojan Women'' and ''Medea''. He died at the court of the Macedonian king in 406 BCE. His work gained a greater popularity after his death than it had received during his lifetime (Crystal 317).

''Medea'' was first produced in Athens in 431 BCE. The earliest works in which Medea first appeared, such as the ''Building of the Argo'' and the ''Journey of Jason to the Cochians'' by Ehpimenides of Crete are only fragments, but her story seems to be an old and popular one (Johnston 3). From at least the early fifth century B.C., Medea was seen as a complex figure. Medea exhibited an extraordinary range of behavior and was different from most other figures in Greek myth(Johnston 6). According to legislation passed, twenty years earlier, a foreign woman could not legally marry an Athenian male. Any children begotten through such a union would not be considered legitimate heirs in the eyes of the law (Vandiver 217-16). In the late fifth century, after Euripides production of ''Medea'', everyone began to emphasize Medea’s role as a foreigner within the Greek Society (Johnston 8). Medea also began to challenge thoughts of what drove humans to inhuman behavior (Johnston 10).

Medea has moved to the forefront in the twentieth century. She forces us today to look into the depths of our own souls (Johnston 17). Even though Medea was first produced in 431 B.C. she is still shown today as a “barbarian woman” and shows us the crime of infanticide existed even in Euripides time period.

== Characters ==
* [[Jason]]
* [[Medea]]
* [[Kreon]]
* [[Aigeus]]
* [[Chorus]]

Medea is the princess of the Isle of Colchis(642). Medea is a sorceress, skilled in magic, and is renowned for her cleverness. Medea comes from a prestigious lineage; she is the daughter of king Aeetes and Idyia and the granddaughter of the sun god, Helios, and the niece of Circe who is also known as a sorceress. Medea admires and is a protégé of goddess Hecate, a patron of witchcraft.

Medea falls in love with a man named Jason when he reached the land of Colchis in pursuit of the Golden Fleece.(642) Medea falls in love with Jason, helps him steal the Golden Fleece from her own country and leaves with him.(642) She even kills her own brother to run away with Jason. They eventually marry, have children, and live in exile in Corinth.(643)

Medea learns that Jason plans to marry the King of Corinth’s daughter. (643) She learns he has intentions of marrying her and leaving Medea and the kids to fend for themselves.(647) Kreon, King of Corinth, hears of Medea’s anger and threats with Jason and the king’s daughter.(648) Kreon approaches Medea and sentences her and her children to exile from Corinth.(648)

Due to the drastic news of Medea's husband, she becomes furious and in her angered state plans for the demise of her husband, his new bride to be, and her father.(658) Medea first covers her base by finding a safe place to live in exile. (656) King Aigeus, King of Athens, agrees that if she can find her way to his doorstep she can stay forever and be safe in return for her helping him to produce a male heir with his wife.(656)

Now Medea plans the way to kill Jason’s bride to be and anyone who touches her.(658) She plans to poison two bridal gifts for Jason’s new bride and have the children hand deliver them to her.(659) Jason falls for the plan and takes the children to his bride to be where she receives her gifts and puts them on falling to her death.(664) A messenger tells Medea the fate of her children and Jason then finds Medea after finding out the dastardly deed she has done.(669) Medea escapes Corinth with her dead children on a dragon drawn chariot given to her by Helios, her grandfather to protect her from her enemies.(670) She escapes to live in Athens and Jason never sees his children again.(670)
==Gods==
* [[Aphrodite]]
* [[Pelias]]
* [[Pieria]]

== Commentaries ==
* [http://litmuse.maconstate.edu/~glucas/archives/000320.shtml Euripides' ''Medea'': Patriarchal Terrorism]]

== External Links ==
* [http://www.pantheon.org/articles/m/medea.html Medea]
== Questions for Consideration==
* [[What was the Golden Fleece?]]
* [[Was Jason a caring father/husband?]]
* [[Why would any mother kill their children?]]
* [[Why did Creon choose Jason to marry his daughter?]]
* [[How is Medea powerful as a women?]]
* [[Is Medea somewhat immortal?]]
* [[Why does Jason wait until the end to express his love for his children?]]
* [[Medea a feminist character, what implications does her action present?]]
* [[Was Medea schizophrenic?]]
* [[Was Medea a witch?]]
* [[Why couldn't Jason see Medea's muderous intent?]]

== Works Cited ==
* “Athenian Democracy.” 2005. Wikipedia. 8 April 2005 <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Athenian_democracy#Citizenship_in_Athens>.
* Buxon, Richard. ''The Complete World of Greek Mythology''. NY: Thames & Hudson. 2004.
* Crystal, David. ''The Cambridge Biographical Encyclopedia.'' Press Syndicate of the University of Cambridge. New York. 1995.
* Easterling, P.E. “The Infanticide in Euripides’ ''Medea''.” ''YCS'' 25, 1977.
* Ferguson, John.'' A Companion to Greek Tragedy''. TX: University of Texas Press. 1972.
* Graves, Robert. ''Greek Myths''. NY: Penguin Books. 1981.
* Grimal, Pierre. ''Larousse World Mythology''. New Jersey: Chartwheel Books Inc. 1973.
* Lattimore, Richard. ''The Poetry of Greek Tragedy.'' MD: John Hopkins Press. 1958.
* McDermott, Emily A. Euripedes’ Medea: The Incarnation of Disorder. University Park, PA. 1989.
* Melchinger, Siegfried. ''Sophocles''. New York: Frederick Ungar Publishing Co. 1974. 35-42.
* Pelling, Christopher. ''Greek Tragedy and the Historian''. Oxford, 1997.
* Pucci, Pietro. ''The Violence of Pity in Euripides’ Medea''. Cornell University, 1980.
* Ober, Josiah and Strauss, Barry. “Drama, Political Rhetoric, and Discourse of Athenian Democracy.” ''Drama in Its Social Context''. Ed. Winkler, John J. Athenian. Princeton, 1990.
* O’Higgins, Dolores M., Sourvinou-Inwood, Christiane, Johnston, Sarah Iles, and McDonald, Marianne. ''Medea: Essays on Medea in Myth, Literature, Philosophy, and Art.'' Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1997.
* Rassidakis, Kristina. “The origins of love, hate, and retaliation in Euripides tragedy ''Medea'': a psychodynamic approach.” ''Changes: International Journal of Psychology and Psychotherapy'' 15, 1997.
* Vandiver, Elizabeth. ''Greek Tragedy''. The Teaching Company. Course # 217. Lectures 1-24.

[[Category:World Literature]]

2006-06-21T17:52:10Z

Kroyal:

Hermes Argeiphontes was a messenger of the gods. Hermes the son of the god Zeus and Maia. As the special servant and courier of Zeus, Hermes had winged sandals and a winged hat and bore a golden Caduceus, or magic wand, entwined with snakes and surmounted by wings. He was also the god of commerce, and the protector of traders and herds. He also protected gymnasiums and stadiums and was believed to be responsible for both good luck and wealth. Hermes was also a dangerous foe, a trickster, and a thief. On the day of his birth he stole the cattle of his brother, the sun god Apollo, and made the cattle walk backward to cover his tracks. When confronted by Apollo, Hermes denied the theft. The brothers were finally reconciled when Hermes gave Apollo his newly invented lyre. Hermes was represented in early Greek art as a mature, bearded man; in classical art he became an athletic youth, nude and beardless.

More notably, as for the relevence to ''the Odyssey'', Hermes conducted the souls of the dead to the underworld and was believed to possess magical powers over sleep and dreams. He favors Odysseus and provides him with the molu flower to resist [[Circe]]'s charms (X.299-330). He tells Odysseus how to intimidate [[Circe]] in a song, which he probably played on his Lyre.

Work Cited:

Stewart, Michael. "Hermes." ''Greek Mythology: From the Iliad to the Fall of the Last Tyrant.'' November 14, 2005.Messagenet Communications Research. 15 June 2006. <http://messagenet.com/myths/bios/hermes.html>

Muses

2006-06-21T17:51:13Z

Kroyal:

Muses, in Greek mythology, nine goddesses and daughters of the god Zeus and of Mnemosyne, the goddess of memory. The Muses were believed to inspire all artists, especially poets, philosophers, and musicians. By late Roman times (3rd century to 5th century), each Muse was believed to rule over a particular art: Calliope was the muse of epic poetry, Clio of history, Euterpe of lyric poetry sung to the accompaniment of the flute, Melpomene of tragedy, Terpsichore of choral songs and the dance, Erato of love poetry sung to the accompaniment of the lyre, Polyhymnia of sacred poetry, Urania of astronomy, and Thalia of comedy.
The Muses were said to be the companions of the Graces and of Apollo, the god of music. They sat near the throne of Zeus and sang of his greatness and of the origin of the world and its inhabitants and the glorious deeds of the great heroes. The Muses were worshiped throughout ancient Greece, especially at Helicon in Boeotia and at Pieria in Macedonia.

Work cited
"The Muses from Greek Mythology." ''Circle of Muses''.1998 Eliki. June 2006. <http://www.eliki.com/portals/fantasy/circle/define.html>

V.Sandels."Muses." ''Welcome 2 Greece''. Webmistress. June 2006.
<http://www.in2greece.com/english/historymyth/mythology/names/muses.htm>